World seas : an environmental evaluation. Volume 3: Ecologicalissues and environmental impacts

Cover
World Seas: An Environmental
Evaluation,
Volume III: Ecological Issues and Environmental
Impacts
Copyright
Contributors
Introduction to World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation
	Acknowledgments, and the Maps
	References
1.
The Mangrove Ecosystem
	Mangrove Goods and Services
		Goods and Services of Mangroves
		Valuing Mangrove Ecosystem Services
	Threats
		Mangrove Status and Losses
		Regional and National Rates and Causes of Loss
			Southeast Asia
			South Asia
			East Asia
			Pacific
			Australasia
			North and Central America
			South America
			Africa
			The Middle East
		Impacts of Climate Change on Mangrove Ecosystems
			Increasing Sea Levels
			Increasing Precipitation and Extreme Events
			Changes in Long-Term Climate Cycles
			Temperature
	Management and Conservation
		National Policies and Regulations
		Integrated Coastal Management and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
		Local Communities and Alternative Livelihoods
		Mangrove Ecotourism
		Silviculture
		Aquasilviculture
		Mangrove Rehabilitation
			Seafront Planting vs Reversion of Abandoned Ponds
			Inappropriate Mangrove Afforestation on Seagrass Beds
	Economic Instruments to Promote Mangrove Management and Conservation
		Donor-Funded Conservation Instruments
		Private-Funded Conservation Instruments
		Market-Based Conservation Instruments
	International Policy Tools
		Protection Through Environmental Agreements
		Mangroves and the Global Policy Agenda
			Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
			Sustainable Development Goals
			Climate Change Policies
	Addressing Knowledge and Data Gaps
		Mangrove Extent and Deforestation
		Quantifying and Valuing Mangrove Ecosystem Services
		The Response of Mangroves to Climate Change
	Looking Back and Moving Forward
	References
	Further Reading
2.
Global Status of Coral Reefs: In Combination, Disturbances and Stressors Become Ratchets
	Overview of the Status of Coral Reefs
	Consequences of Historical Context
	Rapid Recovery of Coral Communities
	Reef Systems Lose Resilience as Disturbances Increase in Frequency and Duration
	As Disturbances and Stresses Evolve From Events to Trends, the Production of Larvae Decreases
	Multiple Feedbacks Affecting Recruitment Compound Declines in Rates of Reef Recovery
	Lengthening of Reef Recovery Times
	Increased Global Rate of Terrestrial Runoff Can Benefit Plankton-Based Food Webs, But Not Coral Reefs
	CO2 Can Cause Not Only Seawater Warming and Acidification, But Also Stratification
	Many Species of Corals May Not Go Extinct
	Reef Accretion Will Lose to Bioerosion and Most Ecosystem Goods and Services Will Become Degraded
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
3.
Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests
	Kelps: Ocean Trees
	Phylogeography and Distribution
		Growth Forms and Life Cycle
		Dispersal and Recruitment
		Environmental Requirements
		Seasonal Dynamics of Production
		Foundation Species for Diverse Communities
		Ecosystem Services and Values
	Threats Facing Global Kelp Forests
		Ocean Warming and Heatwaves
		Other Climate-Driven Stressors
		Fishing and Kelp Harvesting
		Pollution and Eutrophication
	Trajectories of Kelp Forests Globally
		Regime Shifts and Alternative States of Kelp Forests
		Global Trajectories
		Short-Term Records of Kelp Change
		Long-Term Records of Kelp Change
		Kelp Trajectories Within Different Regions
		Gaps in Our Understanding, Data Limitations and Biases
	The Future of Kelp Forests
		Projected Changes in Kelp Distribution
		Management Options, Building Resilience, and Solutions for Recovery
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
4.
Salt Marshes: Their Role in Our Society and Threats Posed to Their Existence
	The Salt Marsh Habitat
		Salt Marshes Distribution, Composition, and Importance for Coastal Communities
		Salt Marshes Accretion and Growth
	Ecosystem Services of Salt Marshes in Our Modern Society
		Carbon Sequestration
		Contamination Chronology and Pollutant Immobilization
		Nitrogen Fixation and Water Quality Improvement
			Support to Fishery, Wildlife Conservation, and Tourism, Sources of Raw Material and Food
		Erosion Control and Coastal Protection
	Major Threats to the Conservation of Salt Marshes
		Land Reclamation and Coastal Squeeze
		Eutrophication and Pollution
		Vegetation Disturbance and Biological Invasion
		Altered Hydrological Regimes
		Global Warming and SLR
	Management Actions to Ensure Long-Term Protection and Persistence of Salt Marsh Habitats
	Summary, Prognoses, or Needs
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Further Reading
5.
Remote Sensing for Marine Management
	Introduction
	Ocean Color
		Chorophyll-a
		Particulate Organic Carbon
		Coral Reefs
		Habitat Mapping
			Wetlands
			Mangroves
			Biodiversity and Health of Systems
			Harmful Algal Blooms
			Seagrass
	Measurement of Physical Parameters
		Sea Surface Temperature
		Significant Wave Height
		Sea Currents and Waves
		Salinity
	Proximal Sensing: Tracking, Biota, Benthos
		Fish
		Marine Mammals
		Turtles
		Birds
		Benthic Environments
	Oil Spills
		Oil Spill Remote Sensing Using Optical Techniques
		Laser Fluorosensors
		Radar
		Ship-Borne Radar Oil Spill Detection
		Slick Thickness Measurements
	Summary
	References
6.
New Advances in Benthic Monitoring Technology and Methodology
	Introduction
	Overview of Established Monitoring Techniques
	Modern Methodologies
		Remote Sensing
		Acoustic-Based Methods
		Chemistry-Based Methods
		Optics-Based Methods
	Structure From Motion Multiview Stereophotogrammetry
		Diver Based
		AUV/ROV Based
		UAV Based
	Conclusions
	References
7.
Seabirds
	Introduction
	Changes in Marine Prey
		Naturally Oscillating Ocean Regimes
		Climate Change Induced Alterations in Marine Prey
	Sea Level Rise
	Pathogens and Parasites of Seabirds
		Parasites
		Diseases
			Bacterial Pathogens
			Viruses
	Hunting
	Pollutants
		Oil in the Marine Environment
		Anthropogenic Chemicals
		Radioactivity
		Marine Debris
	Seabird-Fisheries Interactions
		Incidental Bycatch of Seabirds in Fisheries
		Competition for Prey Resources
		Discards
	Interactive and Cumulative Effects
	Marine Protected Areas
	Colony Restoration
	Community-Based Seabird Conservation Work
	International Conservation Efforts
	References
8.
Blooms of the Moon Jellyfish Aurelia: Causes, Consequences and Controls
	Introduction
	Taxonomy of the Moon Jellyfish Aurelia
	Possible Causes of Blooms of the Moon Jellyfish Aurelia
	Consequences of the Moon Jellyfish Aurelia Blooms
		Interference With Fisheries
		Interference With Aquaculture
		Clogging Cooling Intakes of Coastal Power Plants
		Interference With Tourism
	Controlling Aurelia Blooms
	Summary
	Acknowledgment
	References
9.
European Protection of Fisheries in the North East Atlantic
	Introduction
	The Legal Basis of Fisheries Policy
	The Common Fisheries Policy
	The Precautionary Approach Under the Common Fisheries Policy
	Conservation Measures
	Marine Environmental Protection
	Achieving Good Environmental Status
	Attempting to Bridge the Gap Between Economic Exploitation and Environmental Protection
	Progress Toward Good Environmental Status
	Climate Change and Fishing
	Conclusions
	References
10.
Ghost Fishing
	Ghost Fishing as a Global Problem
		Causes of Derelict Fishing Gear
		Studying and Quantifying the Problem
	Traps and Pots
		Europe
		Mediterranean
		North America
		Caribbean
		Arabia
		Australia
		E. Asia
		Summary
	Nets
		Europe
		Mediterranean
		North America
		E. Asia
		South America
		Summary
	Longlines
	Prevention & Mitigation
		Prevention of Derelict Gear
		Gear Adaptations to Prevent Ghost Fishing
		Cleanup and Removals
	Future Research
	References
11.
Far-Field and Near-Field Effects of Marine Aquaculture
	Introduction
	Finfish Aquaculture
		Near-Field Effects
			Benthic Effects
			Water Quality Effects
			Habitat Modification
		Far-Field Effects
			Spread of Disease or Pathogens
			Introduction of Exotic or Invasive Species
			Coastal Nutrient Enrichment
			Food Web Dynamics
				Altered Fishing Pressure on Nonfarm Associated Fish Stocks
			Marine Litter
	Bivalve Aquaculture
		Near-Field Effects
			Benthic Effects
			Water Quality Effects
			Habitat Modification
		Far-Field Effects
			Spread of Disease or Pathogens
			Introduction of Exotic or Invasive Species
			Food Web Dynamics
	Seaweed Aquaculture
		Near-Field Effects
			Benthic Effects
			Water Quality Effects
			Habitat Modification
		Far-Field Effects
			Spread of Disease and Pathogens
			Introduction of Exotic or Invasive Species
			Coastal Nutrient Enrichment
			Food Web Dynamics
	Mitigation Measures
		“Best Management Practices” and Voluntary Incentives
		Regulatory and Management Approaches
		Scientific and Technological Advances
		Alternative Culture Systems
	Conclusions
	Acknowlegments
	References
	Further Reading
12.
The Making of a Global Marine Fisheries Catch Database for Policy Development
	Introduction
	The FAO Global Catch (Landings) Database
	The Sea Around Us Catch Database
	Output From the Sea Around Us Global Catch Database
	Responses to Findings From the Sea Around Us Global Catch Data
	Catch Time Series
	Catch-Based Indicators
	Future Developments
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
13.
Ballast Water: Problems and Management
	Introduction
	Species Invasion Facts
		Overlooked and Unexpected Species in Ballast Tanks
			Sediment in Ballast Tanks
			Biofouling in the Tank
			Larger Organisms in the Tank
			Trap Samples
	Need for Ballast Water
	International Response—The BWM Convention
	How Protective Are Management Measures?
	What to Do if a New Species Was Found?
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
14.
Debris in Deep Water
	Overview: Exploration of Deep Bottoms
	Marine Debris
	Factors Influencing Debris Distribution
	Methods
	Plastics and Microplastics
	Fishery-Related Debris
	Ghost fishing
	Other Debris
	Threats to Marine Life
	Conclusions and Future Challenge
	Acknowledgments
	References
15.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Global Ocean
	Introduction
	Riverine Sources of PCBs
	Atmospheric Sources of PCBs
	PCBs in the Continental Shelf Sediments and Water
		PCBs in Coastal/Shelf Sediments
		PCBs in Coastal/Shelf Waters
	PCBs in the Surface Oceans
		Subtropical and Tropical Oceans
		Arctic and Southern Ocean
	Vertical Transport, Cycling, and Distribution of PCBs
		Occurrence of PCBs in the Oceanic Water Column
			Dissolved PCBs
			Particle-Bound PCBs
		Settling Fluxes
		Subduction
	Synthesis, General Remarks, and Future Research
	References
16.
Microbial Remediation of Organic Pollutants
	Introduction
	Microbial Remediation of Organic Pollutants in Marine Environments
		Degrading Potential: Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolisms of Organic Pollutants
		Microbial Degraders From Marine Environments
			Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degrading Bacteria From Seawater and Sediments
			PAH-Degrading Bacteria From Mangrove Sediments
			Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria in Marine and Estuarine Sediments
			Other Organic Pollutants
		Microbial Monitoring Tools and Strategies in the Bioremediation Sites
		Microbial Community Diversity and Dynamics Involved in Remediation
			Comparison of Microbial Communities in Polluted and Pristine Sites
			Succession of Microbial Community Structure
			Efficiency of Bioaugmentation With Regard to the Microbial Community Responses
			Relationship Between Microbial Community and Their Remediation Potential
	Microbial Ecological Mechanisms and Prospectives for In Situ Remediation
		Do the Well-Known Degrading Isolates Play an Important Role in Field Sites?
		What Changes Microbial Remediation Processes in Complex Natural Ecosystems?
		What Affects Enhanced-Remediation Processes in the Ecosystem?
			Nitrogen Cycling
			Metal Availability
	Advanced Techniques for Microbial Remediation of Organic Pollutants
		Electrokinetic Enhanced
		Coupling With Abiotic Redox Processes
		Biofilm Enhanced
	References
	Further Reading
17.
Macroplastics Pollution in the Marine Environment
	Introduction
	Types of Plastic Debris
	Global Distribution of Plastic Debris
	Threats to Wildlife and the Environment From Plastic Debris
		Entanglement
		Ingestion
		Suffocation and General Debilitation
		Transportation of Invasive Species
		Accumulation of Toxic Substances
		Disturbance of Habitats From Mechanical Beach Cleaning
	Agreements and Measures to Prevent and Combat Plastic Debris: Global Action and Initiatives
		International Conventions, Frameworks, Measures, and Other Arrangements
			Agenda 2030 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
			United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
				United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement
			International Maritime Organization (IMO)
				MARPOL Convention
				London Convention and Protocol
			Other UN Agencies
				Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
				UN Environment
					Global Plan of Action (GPA)
					Honolulu Strategy
			Other International Conventions and Arrangements
				The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
				The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
				International Whaling Commission (IWC)
				Basel, Rotterdam, and Stockholm Conventions (BRS)
				SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway (SAMOA Pathway)
		Regional Conventions, Frameworks, Measures, and Other Arrangements
			The Role of Regional Cooperation
			Regional Seas Bodies
			Other Regional Arrangements
				Regional Fisheries Management Organizations and Arrangements (RFMO/As)
				Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Approach
			Intergovernmental Frameworks
				G7 Countries
				G20 Countries
				European Union
			National Action Plans
	Final Remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
18.
Microplastics Pollution in the Marine Environment
	Introduction
	Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Definition, Sources, Environmental Fate, and Behavior
	Global Distribution in the Marine Environment
		Accumulations on Beaches and Coastal Areas
		Surface and Water Column Floating Debris
		Deposition and Accumulation of Litter in the Seafloor
		Records of Plastic Pollution in Polar Regions
		Riverine Sources of Plastic Pollution
	Occurrence of Microplastics in Marine Organisms
		Invertebrates
		Vertebrates
	Biological Effects and Toxicity of Microplastic Particles in Marine Species
		Microalgae and Marine Bacteria
		Zooplankton
		Benthic Organisms
		Fish Species
		Effects on Assemblages and Communities
		Other Issues
			Additives
			Adsorbed Pollutants and Mixtures
	Analysis of Microplastics in Seawater
		Polymer Identification
	Priorities and Opportunities for Future Research
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
19.
International Instruments for the Prevention of Marine Alien Invasive Species
	Introduction
	International Organizations Related to the Prevention of Marine Alien Invasive Species
		The Main Global Intergovernmental Organizations
			The United Nations Environment Programme
			The International Maritime Organization
		Nongovernmental Organizations
			The International Union for Conservation of Nature
			Global Environment Fund
	The Origin of International Law
		Binding International Instruments
			Comprehensive Legal Instruments
				Convention on Biological Diversity
				The Cartagena Protocol
				UNCLOS 1982
				The 1997 UN Watercourses Convention
		Specialized International Legal Agreements
			Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)
			International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments
			Provisions of the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
			Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora
		International Legal Conventions Without Binding Force
			Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
			IUCN Guidelines for the Prevention of Biodiversity Loss Caused by Alien Invasive Species (the Guidelines)
			Resolution of Meeting of Signatories to CBD
	International Legal Principles for the Prevention of Alien Species in the Sea
		The Precautionary Principle
		The Public Participation Principle
		Principles of International Cooperation
	Application of Customary International Law
		The Obligation to Prevent, Reduce, and Control Environmental Damage Within Jurisdiction and Control
		Obligation of International Cooperation in Environmental Accidents
	Development Trends of Legislation for the Prevention and Control of Marine Alien Invasive Species
		Construction of a Dispute Settlement Mechanism
		Role of NGOs
		Public Participation
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
20.
Underwater Noise: Sources and Effects on Marine Life
	Introduction
	Measuring Underwater Sounds
	Underwater Noise and Man-Made Sources of Noise Pollution
		Impulsive Sound
		Continuous Sound
	Sound Production and Detection by Underwater Animals
	The Soundscape
	Noise Hot Spots in the Mediterranean Sea
	Effects of Noise on Marine Life
		Physiological Effects
		Hearing Loss and Masking
		Behavioral and Acoustic Responses
	Conclusions
	References
21.
Marine Oil Spills—Oil Pollution, Sources and Effects
	Introduction
	Properties and Weathering of Spilled Oil
		Chemical Composition and Bulk Properties of Oil
		Oil Weathering in Marine Environments
		Marine Tar Residuals
		Weathering Under Icy Conditions
	Ecological and Environmental Impacts
		Factors Affecting Oil Toxicity
		Effects of Oil on Wildlife
		Impacts on Mangroves
		Impacts on Marine Invertebrates
		Impacts on Seabirds
		Impacts on Marine Mammals
		Impacts on Composition and Activity of Microbial Communities
		Impacts in Cold and Harsh Environments
	Economic and Social Impacts
		Impacts on Marine Habitats and Fisheries
		Impacts on Tourisms
		Impacts on Policy and Regulations
		Human Health and Social Impacts
	Major Marine Oil Spill Examples
		Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
		Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
22.
Marine Oil Spills—Preparedness and Countermeasures
	Introduction
	Prevention and Preparedness
		Preparedness and Contingency Planning
		Sensitivity and Vulnerability
		Policies and Regulations
		Training
	Spill Response and Cleanup Options
		Manual Recovery
		Booms
		Skimmers
		Sorbents
		In Situ Burning
		Dispersants
		Bioremediation
	Modeling of Marine Oil Spills
		Oil Trajectory and Weathering
		Existing Modeling Tools and Applications
	Response Decision Support
		Early Warning
		Response Technology Screening and Evaluation
		Net environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) and Risk Assessment
			NEBA
			Risk Assessment
		Cleanup Process Simulation and Control
		Response Operation and Decision-Making Optimization
	Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
23.
Threats to Seamount Ecosystems and Their Management
	Introduction
		What Are Seamounts and Why Are They Important?
	Threats to Seamount Ecosystems
		Seamount Fisheries
			Finfish
			Invertebrate Fisheries
			Bycatch and Habitat Destruction
		Other Human Impacts on Seamount Ecosystems Past, Present, and Future
			Litter
			Climate Change
			Marine Mining
	Managing Seamount Ecosystems and Ocean Governance
		Seamount Fisheries
		Marine Mining
		Other Considerations
		Acknowledgments
	References
24.
Dead Zones: Oxygen Depletion in Coastal Ecosystems
	Introduction
		What Is a Dead Zone?
		Other Hypoxic Ecosystems
		Defining Hypoxia
	What Causes Dead Zones?
		Drivers of Oxygen Depletion
			Oxygen Consumption
			Eutrophication
			Temperature
		Factors Limiting Oxygen Replenishment
			Stratification and Vertical Mixing
			Residence Time and Horizontal Mixing
		Ecosystems at Risk of Deoxygenation
	Biological Consequences of Hypoxia
		Organismal Responses to Hypoxia
			Hypoxia Avoidance
			Maintenance of Oxygen Delivery
			Reduced Oxygen Demand
			Anaerobic Metabolism
			Trade-offs of Tolerating Hypoxia
		Population Responses to Hypoxia
			Size Structure
			Reproductive output
			Metapopulation Perspective
		Community Responses to Hypoxia
			Biodiversity
			Predator–Prey Interactions
			Competition for resources
			Succession and community development
		Ecosystem Responses to Hypoxia
			Habitat Reduction
			Microbial Processes
			Nutrient Cycling
			Ecosystem Services
	Climate Interactions With Dead Zones
		Temperature Effects on Oxygen Depletion
		Temperature and Physiological Responses to Hypoxia
		Precipitation, Wind, and Other Climate Variables
		Dead Zones in a Changing Climate
	Global Increase of Dead Zones
	Summary and Next Steps
	Acknowledgments
	References
25.
Marine Protected Areas: Attempting the Sustainability of the Seas
	The unsustainable use of the world’s seas
	Responses to the Deterioration of the Seas
	What Is an MPA?
	Types of MPA
		According to Their Main Aim: MPAs vs OEABCMs
		According to Management Objectives: IUCN
		According to Their Legal Background
		According to Legal Stringency: Multiple-Use MPAs vs Marine Reserves
		According to Nearness to the Shoreline
	Progress in MPA Designation and Coverage
	Management: Achilles Heel of Most MPAs
	Are MPAs Effective to Sustainably Manage the Seas?
		What an MPA Can and Cannot Do: Unrealistic Expectations
		Environmental Effects of MPAs
			Water Quality
			Habitats
			Species
		Socioeconomic Effects
		Factors Contributing to the Performance of MPAs
	Enhancing the Conservation Effects of MPAs: MPA Networks
	Short- and Medium-Term Prospects for MPAs
		Gloomy Forecasts Arise From Ocean Warming, Water Acidification, Alien Invasive Species, Increased Demand for Marine Resour ...
		Happy Forecasts Arise From Increased MPA Coverage; Reduced Pressure on Fisheries; Increased Water Purification, and Greate ...
	Conclusions
	References
26.
Shoreline Defenses
	Introduction
	First Records of Artificial Coastal Structures
	Contemporary Shore Defenses and Their Impacts
	Ecological Engineering of Artificial Coastal Structures
	The Future of Seawalls and Coastal Protection
	Acknowledgments
	References
27.
Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation
	Introduction
	Air Pollution
		Atmospheric Pollution
		Conventional Air Pollutants
		Greenhouse Gas Emissions
		Air Pollution Mitigation
		Regulatory and Management Frameworks
	Spills from Ships
		Oil Spills
			Environmental Impacts of Oil Spills
			Management of Oil Spills
		Hazardous and Noxious Substance (HNS) Spills
			Environmental Impacts of HNS Spills
			Management of HNS Spills
		Dry Bulk Cargo Releases
			Environmental Impacts of Dry Bulk Cargo Releases
			Management of Dry Bulk Cargo Releases
	Garbage Management
		Ship-Based Garbage Management
		Onshore Garbage Management
	End-of-Life Ship Disposal
		Shipbreaking
		Ship Sinkings
	Ballast Water Containing Aquatic Invasive Species (AIS)
		Environmental Effects of Ballast Water
		Management of Ballast Water
	Underwater Noise
		Environmental Effects of Underwater Noise
		Regulations and Management of Underwater Noise
	Ship-Strikes on Marine Megafauna
		Mitigation of Ship-Strikes
			Altered Shipping Routes
			Vessel Speed Restrictions
			Areas to Be Avoided
			Mitigation Methods for the High Seas
			Technologies for Detecting Whales and Warning Mariners
			Recommendations for Ship-Strike Mitigation
	Effects on Terrestrial Habitat and Marine Ecosystem
	Management Solutions to Address Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation
		Regulations and Enforcement
		Technological Solutions
		Regional and International Initiatives
		Incentive and Awarding
		Awareness
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
28.
Collisions of Vessels With Cetaceans—The Underestimated Threat
	Introduction
	Vessel Types and Cetacean Species Involved
	Why Do Collisions Occur?
	How Many Ship Strikes Are There, Locally or Globally?
	What Can Be Done to Mitigate the Threat?
		Operational Measures
		Technological Measures
		Educational Measures
	The Role of the IWC
		The IWC Ship Strike Database
		International Cooperation
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
29.
Marine Protected Areas
	Introduction
	History and Development of MPAs
	Benefits of MPAs
	Forms and Types of MPAs
	Recent Trends in MPAs
		MPAs and High Seas
		Marine World Heritage
			Progress on High Seas MPAs and World Heritage
		Very Large MPAs and LSMPA Best Practice Guidelines
		Compliance Issues
		Diversity and Quality of MPA Governance
		Effective Management in MPAs
	Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods/Main Users of MPAs
		MPAs and Ecosystem Services
		MPAs and Food Security
		MPAs and Fisheries Management
		Tourism and Recreation
		Energy Development
		Shipping and Marine Transportation
		Coastal and Marine Aquaculture
	Maximizing the Role of MPAs
		Turning the Corner on Paper Parks: Implementing the Green List
		MPAs and Connectivity ICZM: Ridge to Reef
		Blue Carbon
		The Economic Case for MPAs
			Case Study: The Great Barrier Reef
	Planning for MPAs in a Future Changing Ocean World
		Relationship Between MPAs and Climate Change
		Relationship Between MPAs and Fisheries
		MPAs and Ocean Governance: A Necessary Deal for Resilience
		Considering Cumulative Impacts
	References
	Further Reading
30.
Marine Spatial Planning
	Introduction
	Marine Spatial Planning “101”
		What Is MSP?
		What Does MSP Entail?
		Benefits of Having MSP in Place
	Global Status of Marine Spatial Planning
		Europe
		The Americas
		Oceania
		Asia
		Middle East
		Africa
	Major Challenges Faced in Marine Spatial Planning
		Political and Institutional Frameworks
		Environmental Sustainability and Ecosystem-Based Management
		Performance Monitoring and Evaluation
		Stakeholder Engagement
		Human Dimensions and Social Data
		Transboundary Issues
		Global Climate Change
	Final Considerations
	References
	Further Reading
31.
The Role of Ports in a Global Economy, Issues of Relevance and Environmental Initiatives
	Introduction
	The Shipping Industry
		Evolution of the Shipping Industry
		Benefits of the Shipping Industry
	The Port Sector
		Port Organization
		Port Sector Performance
	Issues of Relevance in Ports
		Socioeconomic Issues
		Safety
		Logistic Chain
		Port-City Integration
		Environment
	Selected Environmental Initiatives and Tools in Ports
		Initiatives
			European Initiatives
			Other Initiatives
		Selected Tools
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
32
Molecular Approaches for an Operational Marine Biodiversity Observation Network
	Introduction
	The Value of the Oceans and Threats to Such
	The Role of Biodiversity in Legal and Policy Frameworks
	The Marine Biodiversity Observation Network
	Essential Variables
	Measuring Biodiversity
	Measuring Biodiversity With Molecular Methods
	Molecular Biology Applied to Monitoring Needs
	Toward Routine Monitoring and a Functional Observation Network
	Research Needs and Prioritization
	Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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