Wind effects on structures : modern structural design for wind

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 21
Introduction......Page 23
Part I Atmospheric Flows, Extreme Wind Speeds, Bluff Body Aerodynamics......Page 27
  1.1.1 Temperature of the Atmosphere......Page 29
  1.1.2 Radiation in the Atmosphere......Page 30
  1.1.3 Compression and Expansion. Atmospheric Stratification......Page 31
  1.1.4 Molecular and Eddy Conduction......Page 32
 1.2 Atmospheric Hydrodynamics......Page 33
  1.3.2 Local Storms......Page 36
 References......Page 42
 2.1 Wind Speeds and Averaging Times......Page 43
 2.2 Equations of Mean Motion in the ABL......Page 45
 2.3 Wind Speed Profiles in Horizontally Homogeneous Flow Over Flat Surfaces......Page 46
  2.3.1 The Ekman Spiral......Page 47
  2.3.2 Neutrally Stratified ABL: Asymptotic Approach......Page 48
  2.3.3 Brunt‐Väisäla Frequency. Types of Neutrally Stratified ABLs......Page 50
  2.3.4 The Logarithmic Mean Wind Profile......Page 53
  2.3.5 Power Law Description of ABL Wind Speed Profiles......Page 56
  2.3.6 ABL Flows in Different Surface Roughness Regimes......Page 57
  2.3.7 Relation Between Wind Speeds with Different Averaging Times......Page 59
  2.4.1 Turbulence Intensities......Page 61
  2.4.2 Integral Turbulence Scales......Page 62
  2.4.3 Spectra of Turbulent Wind Speed Fluctuations......Page 64
  2.4.4 Cross‐spectral Density Functions......Page 70
  2.5.1 Flow Near a Change in Surface Roughness. Fetch and Terrain Exposure......Page 71
  2.5.2 Wind Profiles over Escarpments......Page 72
  2.5.3 Hurricane and Thunderstorm Winds......Page 74
 References......Page 77
   3.1.1.1 A Case Study: The Fair Die......Page 81
  3.1.2 Mixed Wind Climates......Page 82
  3.2.1 Meteorological and Micrometeorological Homogeneity of the Data......Page 83
   3.2.3.1 Data in the Public Domain......Page 84
   3.2.3.2 Data Available Commercially......Page 86
  3.3.1 Epochal Versus Peaks‐Over‐Threshold Approach to Estimation of Extremes......Page 87
  3.3.2 Extreme Value Distributions and Their Use in Wind Climatology......Page 88
   3.3.3.1 Method of Moments......Page 89
  3.3.4 Sampling Errors in the Estimation of Extreme Speeds......Page 90
  3.3.5 Wind Speed Estimation by the Peaks‐Over‐Threshold Approach......Page 91
  3.4.1 Tornado Flow Modeling......Page 92
  3.4.2 Summary of NUREG/CR‐4461, Rev. 2 Report......Page 93
  3.4.3 Design‐Basis Tornado for Nuclear Power Plants......Page 94
  References......Page 96
Chapter 4 Bluff Body Aerodynamics......Page 99
  4.1.1 Equations of Motion and Continuity......Page 100
  4.1.2 The Navier–Stokes Equation......Page 101
  4.1.3 Bernoulli's Equation......Page 102
 4.2 Flow in a Curved Path: Vortex Flow......Page 103
 4.3 Boundary Layers and Separation......Page 104
 4.4 Wake and Vortex Formations in Two‐Dimensional Flow......Page 108
 4.5 Pressure, Lift, Drag, and Moment Effects on Two‐Dimensional Structural Forms......Page 115
 4.6 Representative Flow Effects in Three Dimensions......Page 119
  4.6.1 Cases Retaining Two‐Dimensional Features......Page 122
  4.6.2 Structures in Three‐Dimensional Flows: Case Studies......Page 125
 References......Page 128
  5.2.1 Dimensional Analysis......Page 131
  5.2.2 Basic Scaling Considerations......Page 133
 5.3 Aerodynamic Testing Facilities......Page 134
  5.4.1 Effect of Type of Spires and Floor Roughness Elements......Page 146
  5.4.2 Effect of Integral Scale and Turbulence Intensity......Page 148
  5.4.3 Effects of Reynolds Number Similarity Violation......Page 149
  5.4.4 Comparisons of Wind Tunnel and Full‐Scale Pressure Measurements......Page 151
 5.5 Blockage Effects......Page 153
 5.6 The High‐Frequency Force Balance......Page 154
 5.7 Simultaneous Pressure Measurements at Multiple Taps......Page 155
 References......Page 158
 6.1 Introduction......Page 161
 6.3 Discretization Methods and Grid Types......Page 162
  6.4.1 Initial Conditions......Page 163
  6.4.2 Boundary Conditions......Page 164
 6.6 Stability......Page 165
  6.7.2 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)......Page 166
  6.7.3 Large Eddy Simulations (LES)......Page 168
  6.7.4 Reynolds‐Averaged Navier–Stokes Simulation (RANS)......Page 170
  6.7.5 Hybrid RANS/LES Simulation......Page 172
 6.8 Verification and Validation. Uncertainty Quantification......Page 174
  6.8.1 Sources of Inaccuracy in CWE Simulations......Page 175
  6.8.2 Verification and Validation......Page 176
 6.9 CWE versus Wind Tunnel Testing......Page 177
 References......Page 178
 7.2 Statistical Framework for Estimating Uncertainties in the Wind Loads......Page 183
  7.3.1 Uncertainties in the Estimation of Extreme Wind Speeds......Page 185
  7.3.2 Uncertainties in the Estimation of Exposure Factors......Page 186
  7.3.3 Uncertainties in the Estimation of Pressure Coefficients......Page 187
 References......Page 190
Part II Design of Buildings......Page 193
 8.1 Modern Structural Design for Wind: A Brief History......Page 195
 8.2 Database‐Assisted Design......Page 197
 8.3 Equivalent Static Wind Loads......Page 200
 References......Page 202
 9.1 Stiffness Matrices......Page 205
 9.2 Second‐Order Effects......Page 206
 References......Page 207
 10.2 Pressure Tap Placement Patterns and Tributary Areas......Page 209
 10.3 Aerodynamic Loading for Database‐Assisted Design......Page 210
  10.4.1 Pressures Within an Area A Contained in a Specified Pressure Zone......Page 212
  10.4.2 Identifying Areas A Within a Specified Pressure Zone......Page 213
 References......Page 219
 11.1 Introduction......Page 221
 11.2 The Single‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Linear System......Page 222
 11.3 Time‐Domain Solutions for 3‐D Response of Multi‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Systems......Page 223
  11.3.1 Natural Frequencies and Modes of Vibration......Page 224
  11.3.2 Solutions of Equations of Motion of Forced System......Page 225
 11.4 Simultaneous Pressure Measurements and Effective Wind‐induced Loads......Page 226
 Reference......Page 227
 12.1 Introduction......Page 229
 12.2 Uncertainties in the Dynamic Response......Page 230
 12.3 Wind Load Factors: Definition and Calibration......Page 231
  12.4.2 Effect of Aerodynamic Interpolation Errors......Page 232
  12.4.6 Notes......Page 233
 12.5 Wind Load Factors and Design Mean Recurrence Intervals......Page 234
 References......Page 235
 13.1 Introduction......Page 237
 13.2 Directional Wind Speeds and Response Surfaces......Page 238
  13.3.1 Matrix of Largest Directional Wind Speeds......Page 239
 13.4 Estimation of Directional Wind Effects with Specified MRIs......Page 240
 13.5 Non‐Directional Wind Speeds: Wind Directionality Reduction Factors......Page 241
 13.7 Inter‐Story Drift and Floor Accelerations......Page 243
 References......Page 244
 14.2 Estimation of Equivalent Static Wind Loads......Page 245
 References......Page 250
 15.1 Introduction......Page 251
  15.2.1 Human Response to Wind‐Induced Vibrations......Page 252
 15.3 Comfort Criteria for Pedestrian Areas Within a Built Environment......Page 253
  15.3.1 Wind Speeds, Pedestrian Discomfort, and Comfort Criteria......Page 254
  15.4.1 Wind Effects Near Tall Buildings......Page 255
  15.4.2 Wind Speeds at Pedestrian Level in a Basic Reference Case......Page 258
  15.4.3 Case Studies......Page 261
  15.5.1 Detailed Estimation Procedure......Page 268
  15.5.2 Simplified Estimation Procedure......Page 272
 References......Page 274
 16.1 Introduction......Page 277
 16.2 Single‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Systems......Page 278
 16.3 TMDs for Multiple‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Systems......Page 281
 References......Page 282
 17.1 Introduction......Page 285
 17.2 Aerodynamic and Wind Climatological Databases......Page 286
 17.3 Structural System......Page 287
 17.4 Overview of the Design Procedure......Page 288
 17.5 Interpolation Methods......Page 289
  17.6.1 Buildings with Various Eave Heights......Page 290
 References......Page 291
 18.2 Preliminary Design and Design Iterations......Page 293
 18.4 Using the DAD&uscore;ESWL Software......Page 294
  18.4.2 Project Directory and its Contents......Page 295
  18.4.3 Software Activation. Graphical User Interface......Page 296
  18.5.1 Building Description......Page 297
  18.5.2 Using the DAD and the ESWL Options......Page 300
 References......Page 306
Part III Aeroelastic Effects......Page 309
 References......Page 311
 19.2 Vortex‐Induced Oscillations of Circular Cylinders......Page 313
 19.3 Across‐Wind Response of Chimneys and Towers with Circular Cross Section......Page 318
 References......Page 322
  20.1.1 Glauert–Den Hartog Necessary Condition for Galloping Motion......Page 323
  20.1.3 Galloping of Two Elastically Coupled Square Cylinders......Page 326
 20.2 Torsional Divergence......Page 329
 References......Page 330
Chapter 21 Flutter......Page 331
 21.1 Formulation of the Two‐Dimensional Bridge Flutter Problem in Smooth Flow......Page 332
 21.2 Aeroelastic Lift and Moment Acting on Airfoils......Page 333
 21.3 Aeroelastic Lift, Drag And Moment Acting on Bridge Decks......Page 334
 21.5 Two‐Dimensional Bridge Deck Response to Turbulent Wind in the Presence of Aeroelastic Effects......Page 337
 References......Page 338
  22.1.1 Slender Chimneys Assumed to be Rigid......Page 341
  22.1.3 Approximate Expressions for the Across‐Wind Response......Page 344
 22.2 Aeroelastic Response of Slender Structures with Square and Rectangular Cross Section......Page 347
 22.3 Alleviation of Vortex‐Induced Oscillations......Page 351
 References......Page 353
 23.2 Wind Tunnel Testing......Page 357
 23.3 Response to Vortex Shedding......Page 361
  23.4.1 Theory......Page 364
  23.4.2 Example: Critical Flutter Velocity and Buffeting Response of Golden Gate Bridge......Page 367
  23.5.2 Mitigation Approaches......Page 370
 References......Page 371
Part IV Other Structures and Special Topics......Page 373
Chapter 24 Trussed Frameworks and Plate Girders......Page 375
 24.1 Single Trusses and Girders......Page 376
 24.2 Pairs of Trusses and of Plate Girders......Page 378
  24.2.2 Trusses Skewed with Respect to Wind Direction......Page 379
  24.2.3 Pairs of Solid Plates and Girders......Page 381
 24.3 Multiple Frame Arrays......Page 383
  24.4.1 Aerodynamic Data for Square and Triangular Towers......Page 387
 References......Page 392
 25.1 Wind Loading on Offshore Structures......Page 393
  25.1.1 Wind Loads on Semisubmersible Units......Page 394
  25.1.2 Wind Loads on a Guyed Tower Platform......Page 397
  25.2.1 Turbulent Wind Effects on Tension Leg Platform Surge......Page 402
 References......Page 408
Chapter 26 Tensile Membrane Structures......Page 411
 References......Page 412
 27.1 Introduction......Page 415
 27.2 Wind Pressures......Page 416
 27.3 Atmospheric Pressure Change Loading......Page 419
 27.4 Experimental Modeling of Tornado‐Like Wind Flows......Page 422
 References......Page 423
 28.2 Tornado‐Borne Missile Speeds......Page 425
  28.2.1 Deterministic Modeling of Design‐Basis Missile Speeds......Page 426
  28.2.2 Probabilistic Modeling of Design‐Basis Missile Speeds......Page 427
  28.3.1 Basic Assumptions......Page 429
  28.3.2 Numerical Solutions......Page 431
  28.3.3 Simplified Flow Field: Closed Form Solutions......Page 432
 References......Page 434
Appendices......Page 435
  A.1.2 Statistical Estimation......Page 437
  A.2.2 Compound and Conditional Probabilities: The Multiplication Rule......Page 438
  A.2.4 Bayes' Rule......Page 439
  A.2.5 Independence......Page 440
  A.3.2 Histograms, Probability Density Functions, Cumulative Distribution Functions......Page 441
  A.3.4 Joint Probability Distributions......Page 443
  A.4.1 Mean Value, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variation, and Correlation Coefficient......Page 445
  A.5.1 The Geometric Distribution......Page 446
  A.5.3 Normal and Lognormal Distributions......Page 447
   A.6.1.1 Extreme Value Type I Distribution......Page 448
  A.6.3 Generalized Pareto Distribution (GPD)......Page 449
  A.6.4 Mean Recurrence Intervals (MRIs) for Epochal and Peaks‐over‐Threshold (POT) Approaches......Page 450
  A.7.1 Goodness of Fit, Confidence Intervals, Estimator Efficiency......Page 451
  A.7.2 Parameter Estimation for Extreme Wind Speed Distributions......Page 452
 A.8 Monte Carlo Methods......Page 453
  A.9.2 Multiple Hazards......Page 454
 References......Page 456
 B.1 Fourier Series and Fourier Integrals......Page 459
 B.3 Spectral Density Function of a Random Stationary Signal......Page 461
 B.4 Autocorrelation Function of a Random Stationary Signal......Page 463
 B.5 Cross‐Covariance Function, Co‐Spectrum, Quadrature Spectrum, Coherence......Page 464
 B.6 Mean Upcrossing and Outcrossing Rate for a Gaussian Process......Page 465
 B.7 Probability Distribution of the Peak Value of a Random Signal with Gaussian Marginal Distribution......Page 467
 Reference......Page 468
 C.1 Introduction......Page 469
 C.2 Peak Estimation by Peaks‐Over‐Threshold Poisson‐Process Procedure......Page 470
 C.4 Summary......Page 477
 References......Page 478
 D.2 The Single‐Degree‐of‐Freedom Linear System......Page 481
  D.2.2 Response to an Arbitrary Load......Page 482
  D.2.3 Response to a Stationary Random Load......Page 483
   D.3.1.1 Modal Equations of Motion......Page 484
  D.3.2 Response to a Concentrated Harmonic Load......Page 485
  D.3.4 Response to Two Concentrated Stationary Random Loads......Page 486
  D.3.6 Distributed Stationary Random Loads......Page 488
 D.4 Example: Along‐Wind Response......Page 489
 References......Page 492
 E.1 Introduction......Page 493
 E.2 The Basic Problem of Structural Safety......Page 494
  E.3.1 Failure Region, Safe Region, and Failure Boundary......Page 495
  E.3.2 Safety Indexes......Page 496
  E.3.3 Reliability Indexes and Failure Probabilities......Page 499
  E.3.4 Partial Safety Factors: Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 500
 E.4 Structural Strength Reserve......Page 501
  E.4.2 Portal Frame Ultimate Capacity Estimates Based on Multi‐Directional Wind Speeds......Page 502
  E.5.1 Strong Winds and Earthquakes......Page 503
 References......Page 504
  F.1.2 Report Overview......Page 507
  F.3.1 General......Page 508
   F.3.2.1 CPP Wind Tunnel Report......Page 509
   F.3.2.4 NYCBC Wind Speed......Page 510
  F.3.3 NIST Recommended Wind Loads......Page 511
Index......Page 513
EULA......Page 523