Wild Mushrooms: Characteristics, Nutrition, and Processing

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction to wild mushrooms
Chapter 1. An introduction to wild mushrooms and their exploitation for human well-being: An overview
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 General overview on mushrooms
	1.3 Status of wild mushrooms
	1.4 Why is domestication/artificial cultivation of wild mushrooms important?
	1.5 Wild mushrooms exploited for human well-being
		1.5.1 Ganoderma sp.
		1.5.2 Shiitake (Lentinula edodes)
		1.5.3 Pleurotus ostreatus
		1.5.4 Tremella species
		1.5.5 Agaricus species
		1.5.6 Agrocybe aegerita
		1.5.7 Cordyceps sp.
		1.5.8 Hericium sp.
		1.5.9 Grifola frondosa
		1.5.10 Auricularia polytricha
	1.6 The role of wild mushrooms in the environment
	1.7 Ethnobiology and wild mushrooms
	1.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 2. Cultivation strategies of edible and medicinal mushrooms
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Why cultivate edible and medicinal mushrooms?
	2.3 Mushroom cultivation techniques
		2.3.1 Outdoor log culture
			2.3.1.1 Sawdust spawn and wood plug spawn preparation
			2.3.1.2 Log inoculation
				2.3.1.2.1 Stacking of inoculated logs
			2.3.1.3 Stump inoculation
		2.3.2 Indoor cultivation
	2.4 Solid-state fermentation (SSF)
		2.4.1 Substrate properties
		2.4.2 External factors
	2.5 Agro-industrial waste
	2.6 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Lentinula edodes
	2.7 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus
	2.8 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Auricularia auricula - judae
	2.9 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Agaricus bisporus
	2.10 Cultivation of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum
	2.11 Submerged-liquid fermentation (SLF)
		2.11.1 Isolation and morphological identification of pure mycelium of mushrooms
		2.11.2 Conversion of solid-state fermentation (SSF) to submerged-liquid fermentation (SLF)
		2.11.3 SLF in the bioreactor system
			2.11.3.1 Critical parameters in SLF bioreactor system
			2.11.3.2 Extraction of compounds from SLF of a bioreactor culture
		2.11.4 A recent 6-year application of SLF bioreactor extracts in white fungal biotechnology
	2.12 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3. Preservation and processing technology of wild mushrooms
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Species
		3.2.1 Agaricus spp.
		3.2.2 Ganoderma Species
		3.2.3 Lentinus spp.
		3.2.4 Grifolafrondosa
		3.2.5 Rigidoporus Species
		3.2.6 Pleurotusostreatus
	3.3 Cultivation
		3.3.1 Compost Preparations
		3.3.2 Spawning
		3.3.3 Casing
		3.3.4 Harvesting
	3.4 Substrate for cultivation
	3.5 Blanching
	3.6 Drying
		3.6.1 Traditional Drying
		3.6.2 Hot Air Drying
		3.6.3 Microwave Drying
		3.6.4 Freeze Drying
		3.6.5 Osmotic Dehydration
	3.7 Freezing
	3.8 Canning
	3.9 Pickling
	3.10 Irradiation
	3.11 Packaging
	3.12 Other processing techniques
		3.12.1 Pulsed electric Field and Ultrasound
		3.12.2 Ozone
		3.12.3 Electrolyzed Water
	3.13 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4. Medicinal mushroom nutraceutical commercialization: Two sides of a coin
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Mushroom nutraceuticals: The elephant in the room
	4.3 Mushroom identification and nomenclature
	4.4 Raw material: How to make a fair choice?
	4.5 Organic raw materials for mushroom nutraceuticals
	4.6 Safety concerns and quality assurance/control
	4.7 Side effects, contraindications, and concerns
	4.8 Bioavailability of mushrooms' active compounds and drug delivery systems
		4.8.1 Encapsulation of mushroom nutraceuticals
		4.8.2 Nanotechnology-mycosynthesis
	4.9 Dosing
	4.10 Mushroom dietary supplements production and ethics
	4.11 Push it to the market: Are we ready for mushroom nutraceuticals?
	4.12 General strategies when formulating mushroom nutraceuticals
	4.13 Opportunities and prospects
		4.13.1 Mushroom nutraceuticals and COVID-19: Efficient antiviral or another murky field?
	4.14 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Part II: Health aspects of wild mushrooms
Chapter 5. Mushroom ingestion for mineral supplementation
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Minerals
		5.2.1 Calcium
		5.2.2 Potassium
		5.2.3 Magnesium
		5.2.4 Sodium
		5.2.5 Phosphorus
		5.2.6 Copper
		5.2.7 Iron
		5.2.8 Manganese
		5.2.9 Zinc
		5.2.10 Selenium
	5.3 Factors affecting mineral profile
	5.4 Mineral fortification
	5.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
Chapter 6. Edible mushrooms: A source of quality protein
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Various species of edible mushrooms all over the world
		6.2.1 Nutritional profiling of edible mushrooms
		6.2.2 Energy
		6.2.3 Carbohydrates
		6.2.4 Proteins
		6.2.5 Lipids
		6.2.6 Vitamins
		6.2.7 Minerals
	6.3 Comparative analysis of edible mushrooms with other protein sources
	6.4 Protein digestibility of edible mushrooms
	6.5 Health benefits and pharmacological properties of mushrooms
	6.6 Role of edible mushrooms as functional foods
	6.7 Role of edible mushrooms as a nutraceutical source
	6.8 Perishability of edible mushrooms
	6.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7. Health benefits of edible wild mushrooms
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Molecules obtained from mushrooms with bioactive function
		7.2.1 Proteins
		7.2.2 Lectins
		7.2.3 Carbohydrates/polysaccharides
		7.2.4 Lipids/polyunsaturated fatty acids
		7.2.5 Other compounds (vitamins/minerals)
	7.3 Functional and biological properties of mushrooms
		7.3.1 Prebiotic properties
		7.3.2 Antioxidant properties
		7.3.3 Antimicrobial properties
	7.4 Application of mushrooms in food and human health
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8. Nature and chemistry of bioactive components of wild edible mushrooms
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Antitumor properties of mushrooms
		8.2.1 Immunomodulating activity of mushrooms - β-glucans
		8.2.2 Cytotoxic compounds of mushrooms
	8.3 Antibiotic compounds from mushrooms
	8.4 Mushrooms in the treatment of metabolic disorders
		8.4.1 Anti-hypercholesterolemic activity of mushrooms
		8.4.2 Anti-hyperglicemic properties of mushroom products
	8.5 Mushroom products in the treatment of major depression - psilocybin
	8.6 Mushroom compounds with vitamin activity
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 9. In vitro and in vivo bioactivity of edible wild mushrooms
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 In vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential of edible mushrooms - bioactive compounds associated
		9.2.1 Polyphenols, phenolic acids, and flavonoids
		9.2.2 Polysaccharides
		9.2.3 Proteins
		9.2.4 Other bioactive compounds
	9.3 Antitumor, anti-cancer, adjuvant effect, and immunostimulatory activity due to polysaccharides from edible mushrooms
	9.4 Anti-inflammatory, thrombotic, and genoprotective effect of edible mushrooms
	9.5 Antimicrobial and antifungal activity of edible mushrooms
	9.6 Anti-HIV and possible inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease
	9.7 Conclusions
	References
Part III: Analysis of mushroom
Chapter 10. Oxidative stress prevention by edible mushrooms and their role in cellular longevity
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Mushroom strategies to prevent oxidative stress and prolong cellular longevity
		10.2.1 Regulation of redox imbalance
			10.2.1.1 Primary mechanism of action of mushroom antioxidants
				10.2.1.1.1 Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) mechanisms
				10.2.1.1.2 Radical adduct formation (RAF)
				10.2.1.1.3 Sequential electron proton transfer (SEPT)
				10.2.1.1.4 Sequential proton loss electron transfer (SPLET)
				10.2.1.1.5 Sequential proton loss hydrogen atom transfer (SPLHAT)
			10.2.1.2 Secondary mechanism of action of mushroom antioxidants
				10.2.1.2.1 Deactivation of metals
				10.2.1.2.2 Inhibition of oxidative enzymes
				10.2.1.2.3 Inhibition of lipid peroxidation (LPO)
				10.2.1.2.4 Singlet oxygen (1O2) quenching
				10.2.1.2.5 Synergism-regeneration of primary antioxidants
			10.2.1.3 Interaction with various redox signaling pathways
				10.2.1.3.1 Activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2
				10.2.1.3.2 Activation of sirtuin1 (SIRT1)
				10.2.1.3.3 Suppression of nuclear factor kappa B
		10.2.2 Stimulation of the immune system in oxidative stress conditions
			10.2.2.1 Mushrooms as a source of trace elements in oxidative stress prevention and maintaining efficient immune response
			10.2.2.2 Activation of antioxidant enzymes by mushroom compounds in the prevention of autoimmunity or transplant rejection
	10.3 Factors that influence the outcome of mushroom antioxidant therapy
		10.3.1 Physicochemical and biological properties of antioxidants and RONS
		10.3.2 Pro-oxidative effect of antioxidants
		10.3.3 Interference of antioxidant supplementation with drugs
	10.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11. Qualitative and quantitative techniques of analysis for mushrooms
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Physical component analysis
		11.2.1 Dry density
		11.2.2 Moisture content
		11.2.3 Mechanical stress test
		11.2.4 Thermal conductivity of mushroom
		11.2.5 Water absorbtion rate
		11.2.6 Color measurement
		11.2.7 Yield
		11.2.8 Browning index
		11.2.9 Water-holding capacity
		11.2.10 Swelling index
		11.2.11 Seed germination test
	11.3 Chemical component analysis
		11.3.1 Reversed phase-HPLC analysis of toxins
	11.4 Qualitative estimation
		11.4.1 Extraction of polysaccharides from mushrooms
		11.4.2 Hot water extraction (HWE) of polysaccharides
		11.4.3 Alkaline- or acid-extraction (AE)
		11.4.4 Ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE)
	11.5 Molisch's test for carbohydrates
	11.6 Quantitative analysis
		11.6.1 Proximate analysis
			11.6.1.1 Estimation of moisture content
			11.6.1.2 Estimation of total proteins
			11.6.1.3 Lowry assay by Folin reaction
			11.6.1.4 Determination of total lipids
			11.6.1.5 Crude fiber analysis
			11.6.1.6 Determination of total ash
			11.6.1.7 Total carbohydrate estimation
			11.6.1.8 Mineral analysis
			11.6.1.9 Estimation of total sugar
			11.6.1.10 Soluble sugar assay
	11.7 Amino acid assay
	11.8 Fatty acid assay
		11.8.1 Fatty acid profile
	11.9 Qualitative phytochemical analysis
		11.9.1 Barfoed's test for monosaccharides
		11.9.2 Fehling's test for free reducing sugar
		11.9.3 Test for tannins
			11.9.3.1 Borntrager's test for anthraquinones
			11.9.3.2 Liebermann-Burchard test for steroids
		11.9.4 Test for terpenoids
			11.9.4.1 Saponins test
			11.9.4.2 Flavonoids by Shinoda's test
			11.9.4.3 Flavonoids by ferric chloride test
			11.9.4.4 Flavonoids by lead ethanoate test
			11.9.4.5 Flavonoids by NaOH test
		11.9.5 Test for alkaloids
		11.9.6 Test for soluble starch
	11.10 Quantitative phytochemical analysis
		11.10.1 Test for organic acids
		11.10.2 Determination of TPC
		11.10.3 Total flavonoid determination
		11.10.4 Estimation of total flavonoid content
		11.10.5 Test for 5′-nucleotide assay
		11.10.6 1LC-MS analysis of phenolics
	11.11 Nutritional, toxic studies for human health hazards
		11.11.1 Determination of mercury content in mushroom
		11.11.2 Determination of lead and cadmium content in mushroom
		11.11.3 Determination of arsenic content in mushrooms
	11.12 Estimation of human health risks
	11.13 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12. Toxic components and toxicology of wild mushrooms
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Hepatotoxic mushrooms - amatoxin poisoning
	12.3 Nephrotoxic mushrooms
		12.3.1 Amanita renal failure poisoning syndrome
		12.3.2 Orellanine poisoning syndrome
	12.4 Neurotoxic mushroom poisoning syndromes
		12.4.1 Muscarinic poisoning syndrome
		12.4.2 Mycoatropinic poisoning syndrome
		12.4.3 Psilocybin-containing mushrooms
		12.4.4 Erythromelalgia-like syndrome
		12.4.5 Polyporic acid - poisoning syndrome
		12.4.6 Morel neurological syndrome
	12.5 Gyromitrin poisoning syndrome
	12.6 Disulfiram-like mushroom poisoning syndrome
	12.7 Rhabdomyolysis mushroom poisoning syndrome
	12.8 Pancytopenia - trichotecene-containing mushrooms
	12.9 Encephlopathy poisoning syndrome - Pleurocibella porrigens
	12.10 Yunnan sudden unexplained death syndrome - Trogia venenata?
	12.11 Gastrointestinal mushroom poisoning syndrome
	12.12 Shiitake dermatitis
	12.13 Mushrooms that cause hypersensitivity reactions
		12.13.1 Immunohaemolytic anemia-inducing mushrooms - Paxillus syndrome
		12.13.2 Lycoperdonosis
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 13. Influence of food-processing conditions on bioactivity and nutritional components of edible mushroom
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Effect of fermentation on edible mushrooms
	13.3 Effect of pasteurization on edible mushrooms
		13.3.1 Techniques of pasteurization
	13.4 Effect of soaking and blanching on edible mushrooms
	13.5 Effect of irradiation on edible mushrooms
	13.6 Effect of low temperature (freezing) on edible mushrooms
	13.7 Effect of vacuum moistening on edible mushrooms
	13.8 Effect of drying on edible mushrooms
		13.8.1 Solar drying of mushrooms
		13.8.2 Hot air drying
		13.8.3 Freeze drying
		13.8.4 Microwave drying
		13.8.5 Far-infrared drying
		13.8.6 Ultrasound-assisted drying
	13.9 Effect of salting and pickling on edible mushrooms
	13.10 Effect of heat treatment on edible mushrooms
	13.11 Conclusion
	References
Part IV: Specific applications of wild mushrooms
Chapter 14. Extracellular enzymes of wild mushrooms
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Mushrooms
		14.2.1 Significance of mushrooms
	14.3 Extracellular enzymes of wild mushrooms
		14.3.1 Cellulases
			14.3.1.1 Classification of cellulases
				14.3.1.1.1 Endoglucanase
				14.3.1.1.2 Exoglucanase
				14.3.1.1.3 β- glucosidase
			14.3.1.2 Source of cellulases
			14.3.1.3 Mechanism of cellulases
		14.3.2 Laccases
			14.3.2.1 Sources of laccases
			14.3.2.2  Mechanisms of laccases
		14.3.3 Amylases
			14.3.3.1 Classification of amylases
				14.3.3.1.1 α-amylase
				14.3.3.1.2 β-amylase
				14.3.3.1.3 γ-amylase
			14.3.3.2 Sources of amylases
			14.3.3.3 Mode of action
		14.3.4 Lipases
			14.3.4.1 Classification of lipases
			14.3.4.2 Sources for lipases
			14.3.4.3 Mode of action
		14.3.5 Proteases
			14.3.5.1 Classification of proteases
				14.3.5.1.1 Exopeptidases
				14.3.5.1.2 Endopeptidases
			14.3.5.2 Source of proteases
			14.3.5.3 Mode of action
				14.3.5.3.1 Serine proteases
				14.3.5.3.2 Aspartic proteases
	14.4 Applications of extracellular enzymes of wild mushrooms (McKelvey and Murphy, 2011)
		14.4.1 Food processing
		14.4.2 Tanning industry
		14.4.3 Animal feed
		14.4.4 Waste treatment
	14.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15. Application of mushrooms in the degradation of xenobiotic components and the reduction of pesticides
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Essential chemicals and enzymes from mushrooms involved in mycoremediation
	15.3 Need for degradation of xenobiotics and reduction of pesticides
	15.4 Mechanism of degradation by mushrooms
	15.5 Underlying factors influencing bioremediation by mushroom
	15.6 Limitations of mycoremediation
	15.7 Conclusion and future avenues
	Funding Source
	Author contributions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 16. Wild Mushrooms: Characteristics, Nutrition, and Processing
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Kinds of wild mushrooms
		16.2.1 Ecological classification
		16.2.2 Functional classification
	16.3 Distribution of wild mushrooms
		16.3.1 Forests
		16.3.2 Deserts
		16.3.3 Mountains
	16.4 Types of waste material
	16.5 Biology of wild mushrooms and enzymes produced
	16.6 The role of wild mushrooms in bioremediation
	16.7 The importance of lignocellulolytic enzyme-producing by wild mushrooms
	16.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 17. Cultivation of wild mushrooms using lignocellulosic biomass-based residue as a substrate
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Wild mushroom cultivation: Nutritional aspects
	17.3 Wild mushroom cultivation: Environmental aspects
	17.4 Lignocellulosic biomass composition and suitability as a substrate for wild mushroom cultivation
	17.5 Sources, composition, and availability of lignocellulosic biomass
		17.5.1 Rice
		17.5.2 Wheat
		17.5.3 Maize
		17.5.4 Sugarcane
		17.5.5 Sawdust
	17.6 Raw lignocellulosic biomass as a supplement for wild mushroom growth
	17.7 Modified lignocellulosic biomass as a supplement for the growth of wild mushrooms
	17.8 Conclusion
	References
Index