Whole Body Computed Tomography Angiography

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Chief Translators
Translators
1: Principles and Techniques of Multislice Spiral CT (MSCT)
	1.1	 Development of CT Equipment
		1.1.1	 A Brief History of CT Development
		1.1.2	 Digital Imaging and Data Digitization Are the Fundamental Differences between CT and Digital Radiography
		1.1.3	 Technical Improvements in CT Spiral Scanning
		1.1.4	 Technical Improvements in Multislice Spiral CT
			1.1.4.1	 Differences between Multislice Spiral CT and Single-Slice Spiral CT
				1.1.4.1.1 Difference in Detector Arrays
				1.1.4.1.2 Differences in the X-Ray Beam
				1.1.4.1.3 Differences in Data Acquisition Channels
				1.1.4.1.4 Differences in the Number of Slices Obtained in the Same Scanning Cycle
				1.1.4.1.5 Differences in the Method for Selecting Layer Thickness
				1.1.4.1.6 Difference in Image Reconstruction Algorithm
			1.1.4.2	 Advantages of Multislice Spiral CT
				1.1.4.2.1 Maximization of the Life of the X-Ray Tube
				1.1.4.2.2 Greater Scan Coverage
				1.1.4.2.3 Shorter Scanning Time
				1.1.4.2.4 Thinner Scanning Slices
				1.1.4.2.5 Isotropy and Improved Postprocessed Image Quality
			1.1.4.3	 Isotropic Scanning and its Advantages
				1.1.4.3.1 What Is Isotropic Scanning?
				1.1.4.3.2 Only Multislice Spiral CT Can Achieve Practical Isotropic Scanning
				1.1.4.3.3 The Realization of Isotropic Scanning Opens up a New Application Field for CT
		1.1.5	 Dual-Source CT
			1.1.5.1	 Dual-Source CT and its Technical Characteristics
			1.1.5.2	 Advantages of Dual-Source CT
				1.1.5.2.1 Advantages of Cardiovascular Scanning
				1.1.5.2.2 Fast and Large-Coverage Scanning
				1.1.5.2.3 Energy Scanning Can be Performed
			1.1.5.3	 Development of Dual-Source CT
		1.1.6	 Application of Step Scanning in Spiral CT
			1.1.6.1	 Advantages of Step-Stop Axial Scanning
			1.1.6.2	 The Value of Wide-Detector Multislice CT
		1.1.7	 New Progress in Multislice Spiral CT
			1.1.7.1	 Improvement in CT Hardware
				1.1.7.1.1 Improvement of the X-Ray Tube
				1.1.7.1.2 Improvements in Slip Ring Technology
				1.1.7.1.3 Improvements to the Rear Collimator
				1.1.7.1.4 Detector Improvements
				1.1.7.1.5 Improvement Measures in the Signal Transmission Link of the Detector Array
			1.1.7.2	 Improvements in CT Software
				1.1.7.2.1 Individualized X-Ray Emission Doses Are Automatically Adjusted According to the Body Mass Index (BMI)
				1.1.7.2.2 Low Tube Voltage Scanning in CTA
				1.1.7.2.3 Application of ECG Gating for Reducing Radiation Dose
				1.1.7.2.4 Improvement in Image Reconstruction
	1.2	 Basic Concepts of Spiral CT
		1.2.1	 Confusable Basic Concepts of CT
			1.2.1.1	 Collimation Width and Collimator
			1.2.1.2	 Slice Thickness and Effective Slice Thickness
			1.2.1.3	 Pitch and Reconstruction Interval
			1.2.1.4	 Reconstruction and Reformation
			1.2.1.5	 Target Scanning and Amplification Reconstruction
		1.2.2	 Basic CT Concepts
			1.2.2.1	 Matrix
			1.2.2.2	 CT Value
			1.2.2.3	 Window Technology (Window Width and Window Level)
			1.2.2.4	 Resolution
			1.2.2.5	 Partial Volume Effect
			1.2.2.6	 Tube Voltage and Tube Current
				1.2.2.6.1 Tube Voltage
				1.2.2.6.2 Tube Current
	1.3	 CT Image Reconstruction
		1.3.1	 Data Preprocessing in Spiral CT
			1.3.1.1	 Linear Interpolation (LI)
			1.3.1.2	 Filtered Back-Projection Reconstruction
			1.3.1.3	 Iterative Algorithm Reconstruction
	1.4	 CT Image Postprocessing Technology
		1.4.1	 Image Reformation Technology
			1.4.1.1	 Reselecting the Slice Thickness
			1.4.1.2	 Reselecting the Convolution Kernel
			1.4.1.3	 Reselecting the Reconstruction Interval
		1.4.2	 Reprocessing of Image Data
			1.4.2.1	 Multiplanar Reformation (MPR) and Curve Planar Reformation (CPR)
			1.4.2.2	 Maximum Intensity Projection (MIP) and Minimum Intensity Projection (MinIP)
			1.4.2.3	 Surface Shaded Display (SSD)
			1.4.2.4	 Volume Rendering (VR)
			1.4.2.5	 Virtual Endoscopy
	1.5	 Dual-Energy CT
		1.5.1	 History and Technical Progress of Dual-Energy CT Imaging
			1.5.1.1	 Dual-Source Dual-Energy CT
			1.5.1.2	 Single-Source Dual-Energy CT
			1.5.1.3	 Dual-Energy CT Imaging Principles and Image Postprocessing
		1.5.2	 Clinical Application of Dual-Energy CT
			1.5.2.1	 Head and Neck
		1.5.3	 Chest
			1.5.3.1	 Pulmonary Artery
			1.5.3.2	 Aorta
			1.5.3.3	 Pulmonary Parenchyma
			1.5.3.4	 Heart
		1.5.4	 Abdomen
			1.5.4.1	 Liver
			1.5.4.2	 Pancreas
			1.5.4.3	 Kidney
			1.5.4.4	 Adrenal Gland
			1.5.4.5	 Gastrointestinal Tract
		1.5.5	 Musculoskeletal System
	1.6	 CT Perfusion Imaging
		1.6.1	 History and Technical Progress of CT Perfusion Imaging
		1.6.2	 Principle of CTP Imaging
			1.6.2.1	 Nondeconvolution Method
				1.6.2.1.1 Instantaneous Method
				1.6.2.1.2 Slope Method
			1.6.2.2	 Deconvolution Method
		1.6.3	 Clinical Application of CTP Imaging
			1.6.3.1	 Central Nervous System
			1.6.3.2	 Heart
			1.6.3.3	 Abdominal Organs
				1.6.3.3.1 Kidney
				1.6.3.3.2 Liver
				1.6.3.3.3 Pancreas
				1.6.3.3.4 Lung
				1.6.3.3.5 Others
	1.7	 CT Angiography of the Whole Body
		1.7.1	 Progress in CT Technology and the CTA Examination
			1.7.1.1	 Rotational Speed of the Tube
			1.7.1.2	 Number of Slices Collected in One Tube Rotation Cycle
		1.7.2	 Routinization of Clinical CTA Examination
		1.7.3	 Multisite CTA Examination
		1.7.4	 Combined Application of CTA and CTP
	Suggested Reading
2: CT Angiography Image Postprocessing and Data Analysis
	2.1	 Image Display Technology
		2.1.1	 Two-Dimensional (2D) Visualization
			2.1.1.1	 Multiplanar Reformation
			2.1.1.2	 Curved Planar Reformation
			2.1.1.3	 Intensity Projection Technology
		2.1.2	 Three-Dimensional (3D) Display
			2.1.2.1	 Volume Rendering
				2.1.2.1.1 Limitations of Cinematic Rendering Technology
			2.1.2.2	 Surface Shaded Display
			2.1.2.3	 CT Virtual Endoscopy (CTVE)
	2.2	 Segmentation
		2.2.1	 Interactive Clipping Plane
		2.2.2	 ROI Clipping Method
		2.2.3	 Region Extension Method
	2.3	 CTA Subtraction Technology
		2.3.1	 Digital Subtraction
		2.3.2	 Time Subtraction Method
		2.3.3	 Energy Subtraction Method
	2.4	 Postprocessing and Analysis of Dual-Energy CT Images
		2.4.1	 Dual-Energy Bone Removal Software
		2.4.2	 Hard Plaque Removal Software
		2.4.3	 Lung Perfusion Blood Volume Imaging Software
		2.4.4	 Dual-Energy Lung Vessel Software
		2.4.5	 Heart PBV
	2.5	 CTA Data Measurement and Analysis
	2.6	 Standardization of CTA Image Postprocessing
	Suggested Reading
3: Radiation Dose Optimization Strategy for CT Angiography
	3.1	 CT-Related Radiation Dose Parameters
		3.1.1	 CT Dose Index (CTDI)
		3.1.2	 Dose-Length Product (DLP)
		3.1.3	 Effective Dose (ED)
		3.1.4	 Size-Specific Dose Estimate (SSDE)
	3.2	 CTA Radiation Dose Optimization Strategies
		3.2.1	 Before the Examination
			3.2.1.1	 Improving Basic Education on CT Ionizing Radiation
			3.2.1.2	 Evaluation of Examination Indications
		3.2.2	 During the Examination
			3.2.2.1	 Selecting the Appropriate Scan Mode
				3.2.2.1.1 Retrospective ECG-Gated Spiral Scans
				3.2.2.1.2 Prospective ECG-Gated Axial Scanning
				3.2.2.1.3 Prospective ECG-Gated High-Pitch Helical Scan
			3.2.2.2	 Reducing the Tube Voltage
			3.2.2.3	 Reducing the Tube Current
			3.2.2.4	 High-Pitch Scan
			3.2.2.5	 Narrowing the Coverage of the Scan
			3.2.2.6	 Using Prefilters and New Detectors
		3.2.3	 After the Examination
			3.2.3.1	 Selecting an Appropriate Iterative Reconstruction Technique
			3.2.3.2	 Moderately Increasing the Reconstruction Slice Thickness
	3.3	 Algorithms for Optimizing CTA Radiation Dose in Clinical Practice
		3.3.1	 Coronary Artery Calcium Score Scan
		3.3.2	 Coronary CTA
		3.3.3	 Chest Pain Triple-Rule-out
		3.3.4	 Myocardial Perfusion and Delayed Myocardial Imaging
		3.3.5	 Noncoronary Cardiac CT Scan
		3.3.6	 Dual-Energy CTA
	3.4	 Diagnostic CTA Radiation Dose Reference Levels
	Suggested Readings
4: CT Angiography Contrast Agent Usage and Principles
	4.1	 Basic Information on Contrast Agents
		4.1.1	 Basic Structure and Classification
		4.1.2	 Basic Physical Properties
			4.1.2.1	 Osmotic Pressure
				4.1.2.1.1 Endothelium and Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) Damage
				4.1.2.1.2 Red Blood Cell (RBC) Damage
				4.1.2.1.3 Lungs
				4.1.2.1.4 High Blood Volume
				4.1.2.1.5 Nephrotoxicity
				4.1.2.1.6 Cardiac Toxicity
			4.1.2.2	 Hydrophilic Contrast Agents
			4.1.2.3	 Charge
			4.1.2.4	 Viscosity
			4.1.2.5	 Chemical Toxicity
		4.1.3	 Pharmacokinetics of Iodine-Based Contrast Agents
	4.2	 Principles and Strategies for CTA Intravenous Iodinated Contrast Agent
		4.2.1	 Factors Affecting Arterial Enhancement
			4.2.1.1	 Patient-Related Factors
				4.2.1.1.1 Body Weight
				4.2.1.1.2 Cardiac Output and Cardiovascular Circulation Time
				4.2.1.1.3 Sex
				4.2.1.1.4 Age
				4.2.1.1.5 Other Factors
			4.2.1.2	 Factors Related to the Contrast Agent and Contrast Agent Injection
				4.2.1.2.1 Injection Duration
				4.2.1.2.2 Injection Rate
				4.2.1.2.3 Contrast Agent Bolus Injection Form
				4.2.1.2.4 Contrast Agent Concentration
				4.2.1.2.5 Saline Flushing
			4.2.1.3	 CT Scanning Factors
				4.2.1.3.1 Scanning Duration
				4.2.1.3.2 Scanning Direction
				4.2.1.3.3 Determination of the Contrast Agent Passing Time and Scanning Time
				4.2.1.3.4 Tube Voltage Selection
		4.2.2	 Design and Optimization of Scanning and Contrast Injection Parameters
	4.3	 Notes for the Application of Iodinated Contrast Agent
	4.4	 Safety Issues in the Use of Iodine Contrast Agent
		4.4.1	 Contrast-Induced Nephropathy
			4.4.1.1	 Definition
			4.4.1.2	 Risk Factors
				4.4.1.2.1 Patient-Related Risk Factors
				4.4.1.2.2 Contrast Agent-Based Risk Factors
			4.4.1.3	 Risk Classification
			4.4.1.4	 Clinical Manifestations
			4.4.1.5	 Recommended Treatment or Prevention Strategies
		4.4.2	 Contrast Agent Extravasation
		4.4.3	 Adverse Reactions to Contrast Agent and Treatment Measures
	4.5	 Recent Progress on Intravenous Administration of Iodinated Contrast Agents and Contrast-Induced Nephropathy
	Suggested Reading
5: Cranial CT Angiography
	5.1	 Scanning Technique
		5.1.1	 Scanning Technique
			5.1.1.1	 Conventional CTA
			5.1.1.2	 Digital Subtraction CTA
			5.1.1.3	 Dual-Energy CTA
			5.1.1.4	 Time-Resolved CTA
		5.1.2	 Contrast Injection Techniques
		5.1.3	 Low-Radiation Dose CTA/Low-Contrast Dose CTA
	5.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
		5.2.1	 Multiplanar Reformation
		5.2.2	 Maximum Intensity Projection
		5.2.3	 Volume Rendering
		5.2.4	 Three-Dimensional Whole-Brain Perfusion Blood Volume (PBV)
		5.2.5	 CT Perfusion
	5.3	 Anatomy and Variants of the Intracranial Vessels
		5.3.1	 Internal Carotid Artery System
			5.3.1.1	 Internal Carotid Artery
				5.3.1.1.1 Cervical Segment of Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
					Variants
				5.3.1.1.2 Petrous Segment of the Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
					Variants
				5.3.1.1.3 Lacerum Segment of the Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
				5.3.1.1.4 Cavernous Segment of the Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
					Variants
				5.3.1.1.5 Clinoid Segment of the Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
					Variants
				5.3.1.1.6 Ophthalmic Segment of the Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
					Variants
				5.3.1.1.7 Communicating Segment of Internal Carotid Artery
					Gross Anatomy
					Variants
			5.3.1.2	 Anterior Cerebral Artery
				5.3.1.2.1 Gross Anatomy
				5.3.1.2.2 Variants
			5.3.1.3	 Middle Cerebral Artery
				5.3.1.3.1 Gross Anatomy
				5.3.1.3.2 Variants
		5.3.2	 Vertebrobasilar Artery System
			5.3.2.1	 Vertebral Artery
			5.3.2.2	 Basilar Artery
				5.3.2.2.1 Gross Anatomy
				5.3.2.2.2 Variants
			5.3.2.3	 Posterior Cerebral Artery
				5.3.2.3.1 Gross Anatomy
				5.3.2.3.2 Variants
		5.3.3	 Basicranial Artery Ring (Willis Circle)
			5.3.3.1	 Gross Anatomy
			5.3.3.2	 Variants
		5.3.4	 Anastomotic Branch of the Carotid Artery and Basilar Artery
			5.3.4.1	 Persistent Primitive Trigeminal Artery
			5.3.4.2	 Persistent Primitive Hypoglossal Artery
			5.3.4.3	 Proatlantal Intersegmental Artery
		5.3.5	 Intracranial Venous System
			5.3.5.1	 Superficial Cerebral Veins
			5.3.5.2	 Deep Cerebral Veins
			5.3.5.3	 Dural Sinus
				5.3.5.3.1 Superior Sagittal Sinus
				5.3.5.3.2 Inferior Sagittal Sinus
				5.3.5.3.3 Straight Sinus
				5.3.5.3.4 Transverse Sinus
				5.3.5.3.5 Sigmoid Sinus
				5.3.5.3.6 Occipital Sinus
				5.3.5.3.7 Sinus Confluence
				5.3.5.3.8 Cavernous Sinus
				5.3.5.3.9 Sphenoparietal Sinus, Superior Petrous Sinus, and Inferior Petrous Sinus
					Variants
			5.3.5.4	 Veins of the Posterior Cranial Fossa
				5.3.5.4.1 Gross Anatomy
	5.4	 Clinical Applications
		5.4.1	 Acute Ischemic Stroke (AIS)
			5.4.1.1	 Introduction
			5.4.1.2	 CTA Findings
			5.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.1.3.1 Vasospasm
				5.4.1.3.2 Arteritis
				5.4.1.3.3 Moyamoya Disease
		5.4.2	 Atherosclerosis, Stenosis, and Occlusion of the Cerebral Artery
			5.4.2.1	 Introduction
			5.4.2.2	 CTA Findings
			5.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.2.3.1 Vasospasm
				5.4.2.3.2 Arteritis
				5.4.2.3.3 Moyamoya Disease
				5.4.2.3.4 Fusiform Aneurysm
		5.4.3	 Intracranial Aneurysm
			5.4.3.1	 Introduction
			5.4.3.2	 Preoperative/Postoperative Evaluation of Intracranial Aneurysms
				5.4.3.2.1 Preoperative Evaluation
				5.4.3.2.2 Postoperative Evaluation
			5.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.3.3.1 Normal Vascular Structures
				5.4.3.3.2 Occupied Lesions
				5.4.3.3.3 Arterial Occlusion
				5.4.3.3.4 Severe Vertebrobasilar Atherosclerosis
				5.4.3.3.5 Intracranial Venous Vessels
				5.4.3.3.6 Aneurysms in Rare Sites
				5.4.3.3.7 Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
		5.4.4	 Intracranial Artery Dissection
			5.4.4.1	 Introduction
			5.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			5.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.4.3.1 Atherosclerosis
				5.4.4.3.2 Intracranial Aneurysms
		5.4.5	 Cerebral Parenchymal Vascular Malformation
			5.4.5.1	 Cerebral Parenchymal Arteriovenous Malformations
				5.4.5.1.1 Overview
				5.4.5.1.2 Preoperative CTA Evaluation of Arteriovenous Malformations
				5.4.5.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
					Brain Tumor
					Other Intracerebral Hemorrhagic Lesions
					Intracranial Aneurysms
			5.4.5.2	 Venous Malformations
				5.4.5.2.1 Overview
				5.4.5.2.2 CTV Findings
				5.4.5.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
		5.4.6	 Dural Arteriovenous Fistula
			5.4.6.1	 Overview
			5.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			5.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.6.3.1 Cerebral Parenchymal Vascular Malformation
				5.4.6.3.2 Traumatic Internal Carotid Arteriovenous Fistulas
				5.4.6.3.3 Venous Sinus Thrombosis
		5.4.7	 Moyamoya Disease
			5.4.7.1	 Introduction
			5.4.7.2	 CTA Findings
			5.4.7.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.7.3.1 Arteritis
				5.4.7.3.2 Cerebral Atherosclerosis
				5.4.7.3.3 Cerebral Vasospasm
		5.4.8	 Internal Carotid Cavernous Sinus Fistulas
			5.4.8.1	 Overview
			5.4.8.2	 Preoperative and Postoperative CTA Evaluation
				5.4.8.2.1 Preoperative CTA Evaluation
				5.4.8.2.2 Postoperative CTA Evaluation
			5.4.8.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.8.3.1 Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas in the Cavernous Sinus Area
				5.4.8.3.2 Orbital Varicose Veins
				5.4.8.3.3 Cavernous Sinus Aneurysms
		5.4.9	 Primary Central Nervous System Vasculitis
			5.4.9.1	 Overview
			5.4.9.2	 CTA Findings
			5.4.9.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.9.3.1 Cerebral Vasospasm
				5.4.9.3.2 Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome
				5.4.9.3.3 The Early Phase of Intracranial Atherosclerosis
				5.4.9.3.4 Fibromyodysplasia
				5.4.9.3.5 Radiation-Induced Cerebrovascular Disease
		5.4.10	 Cerebral Venous Thrombosis
			5.4.10.1	 Overview
			5.4.10.2	 CT and CTV Findings
				5.4.10.2.1 Direct Signs
					High-Density Triangle Sign and Banding Sign (Strip Sign) on NECT
					Delta Sign (Empty Triangle Sign)
				5.4.10.2.2 Indirect Signs
				5.4.10.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
					Edema, Ischemia, or Hemorrhagic Lesions
					False Triangle Sign
					Tumors
					Arachnoid Granulations
					Abnormal Venous Sinus Development
					Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH)
		5.4.11	 Large Cerebral Venous Tumors
			5.4.11.1	 Overview
			5.4.11.2	 CT and CTV Findings
			5.4.11.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				5.4.11.3.1 Arachnoid Cysts in the Pineal Region
				5.4.11.3.2 Pineal Tumor
				5.4.11.3.3 Arteriovenous Malformations
		5.4.12	 Intracranial Tumors and Vascular System
		5.4.13	 Others
	5.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	5.6	 New Developments in Cranial CT Angiography
		5.6.1	 New Developments in 4D-CTA
		5.6.2	 New Developments in Dual-Energy CT
			5.6.2.1	 Distinguishing Intracranial Hemorrhage from Contrast Extravasation
			5.6.2.2	 Identifying Causes of Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage
			5.6.2.3	 Distinguishing Calcification and Hemorrhage with CT Values ≤100 HU
			5.6.2.4	 Recent Advances in Computational Fluid Dynamics
	Suggested Reading
6: Carotid Artery CT Angiography
	6.1	 Imaging Techniques
		6.1.1	 Scanning Techniques
			6.1.1.1	 Conventional CTA
			6.1.1.2	 Digital Subtraction CTA
			6.1.1.3	 Dual-Energy CTA
		6.1.2	 Contrast Agent Injection Technique
		6.1.3	 Low-Dose/Low Contrast-Dose CTA
	6.2	 Image Postprocessing Technology
	6.3	 Neck Vascular Anatomy and Variants
		6.3.1	 Carotid Artery
			6.3.1.1	 Common Carotid Artery
			6.3.1.2	 Internal Carotid Artery
			6.3.1.3	 External Carotid Artery
		6.3.2	 Vertebral Artery System
			6.3.2.1	 Anatomy of the Vertebral Artery System
				6.3.2.1.1 Segments
				6.3.2.1.2 Branches
					Cervical Branches
					Meningeal Branches
					Intracranial Branch
						Meningeal Artery
						Posterior Spinal Artery
						Anterior Spinal Artery
						Perforating Arteries
						Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery
				6.3.2.1.3 Variants
					Variants in Bilateral Vertebral Artery Size
					Variants in Vertebral Artery Course
					Variants in the Origin of the Vertebral Artery
					Variants in the Number of Vertebral Arteries
					Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery (AICA) and Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery (PICA)
		6.3.3	 Anatomy of the Cervical Venous System
			6.3.3.1	 Superficial Venous System
			6.3.3.2	 Deep Venous System
			6.3.3.3	 Vertebral Vein
	6.4	 Clinical Application
		6.4.1	 Carotid Artery Disease
			6.4.1.1	 Atherosclerotic Stenosis or Occlusion of the Carotid Artery
				6.4.1.1.1 Overview
				6.4.1.1.2 CTA Findings
					Evaluation of the Degree of Stenosis
					Evaluation of Plaque Features
					Preoperative and Postoperative Evaluation of Carotid Stenting
				6.4.1.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.1.2	 Carotid Artery Aneurysm
				6.4.1.2.1 Overview
				6.4.1.2.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.1.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.1.3	 Carotid Artery Dissection
				6.4.1.3.1 Overview
				6.4.1.3.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.1.3.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.1.4	 Carotid Artery Penetrating Atherosclerotic Ulcers
				6.4.1.4.1 Overview
				6.4.1.4.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.1.4.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.1.5	 Takayasu Arteritis
				6.4.1.5.1 Overview
				6.4.1.5.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.1.5.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.1.6	 Carotid Body Tumors
				6.4.1.6.1 Summary
				6.4.1.6.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.1.6.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.1.7	 Carotid Artery and Tumors
				6.4.1.7.1 Overview
				6.4.1.7.2 CTA Findings
		6.4.2	 Vertebral Artery Diseases
			6.4.2.1	 Vertebral Artery Stenosis or Occlusion
				6.4.2.1.1 Overview
				6.4.2.1.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.2.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.2.2	 Vertebral Artery Aneurysm
				6.4.2.2.1 Overview
				6.4.2.2.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.2.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.2.3	 Vertebral Artery Dissection
				6.4.2.3.1 Overview
				6.4.2.3.2 CTA Findings
				6.4.2.3.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.2.4	 Vertebrobasilar Dolichoectasia
				6.4.2.4.1 Overview
				6.4.2.4.2 CTA Findings
					Classification
					Diagnostic Criteria
				6.4.2.4.3 Differential Diagnosis
		6.4.3	 Cervical Vein Diseases
			6.4.3.1	 Jugular Vein Thrombosis
				6.4.3.1.1 Overview
				6.4.3.1.2 CTV Findings
				6.4.3.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			6.4.3.2	 Jugular Vein Dilatation or Phlebectasia
				6.4.3.2.1 Overview
				6.4.3.2.2 CTV Findings
				6.4.3.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
	6.5	 Comparison of Imaging Technologies
	6.6	 New Advances in Cervical CTA
		6.6.1	 Double Low CTA
		6.6.2	 Dual-Energy CTA
		6.6.3	 Cerebral and Cervical CTA
	Suggested Reading
7: Pulmonary CT Angiography
	7.1	 Examination Technology
		7.1.1	 Examination Technology
			7.1.1.1	 Conventional CT Angiography
			7.1.1.2	 Dual-Energy CT Angiography
		7.1.2	 Contrast Agent Injection Technique
	7.2	 Image Postprocessing Technology
	7.3	 Pulmonary Vascular Anatomy and Variation
		7.3.1	 Pulmonary Artery
		7.3.2	 Pulmonary Vein
		7.3.3	 Bronchial Artery
	7.4	 Clinical Application
		7.4.1	 Pulmonary Artery
			7.4.1.1	 Pulmonary Artery Dysplasia
				7.4.1.1.1 CTA Findings
					Direct CT Signs
					Indirect CT Signs
				7.4.1.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.2	 Pulmonary Artery Sling
				7.4.1.2.1 CT Findings
					Direct CT Signs
					Evaluation of the Degree and Length of Tracheal and Esophageal Stenosis
					Measurement of the Inner Diameter of the Main Pulmonary Artery and Left/Right Pulmonary Arteries
					Other Combined Malformations
				7.4.1.2.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.3	 Acute Pulmonary Embolism
				7.4.1.3.1 CT Findings
					Non-Enhanced CT
					Contrast-Enhanced CT
				7.4.1.3.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.4	 Chronic Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension (CTEPH)
				7.4.1.4.1 CTA Findings
					Vascular Findings
					Lung Parenchymal Findings
					Dual-Energy CT
				7.4.1.4.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.5	 Pulmonary Hypertension
				7.4.1.5.1 CT Findings
					Vascular Findings
					Lung Parenchymal Findings
					Cardiac Findings
				7.4.1.5.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.6	 Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations
				7.4.1.6.1 CT Findings
				7.4.1.6.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.7	 Pulmonary Sequestration
				7.4.1.7.1 CT Findings
				7.4.1.7.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.8	 Primary Pulmonary Artery Stenosis and Occlusion
				7.4.1.8.1 CT Findings
				7.4.1.8.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.9	 Pulmonary Aneurysm
				7.4.1.9.1 CT Findings
				7.4.1.9.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.1.10	 Primary Pulmonary Artery Tumor
				7.4.1.10.1 CT Findings
				7.4.1.10.2 Differential Diagnosis
		7.4.2	 Pulmonary Vein
			7.4.2.1	 Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection
				7.4.2.1.1 CT Findings
				7.4.2.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.2.2	 Preoperative and Postoperative Evaluation of Atrial Fibrillation
			7.4.2.3	 Relationship Between Lung Cancer and Pulmonary Vessels
				7.4.2.3.1 CT Findings
		7.4.3	 Bronchial Artery
			7.4.3.1	 Bronchiectasis and Bronchial Artery
				7.4.3.1.1 CT Findings
				7.4.3.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.3.2	 Bronchial Aneurysm
				7.4.3.2.1 CT Findings
				7.4.3.2.2 Differential Diagnosis
			7.4.3.3	 Lung Cancer and Bronchial Artery
	7.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	7.6	 Recent Advances in Pulmonary CTA
		7.6.1	 New Progress in Dual-Energy CT Applications
			7.6.1.1	 Acute Pulmonary Embolism
			7.6.1.2	 Chronic Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension
		7.6.2	 Application of Computer-Assisted Diagnosis
			7.6.2.1	 Pulmonary CTA Application in Pediatrics and Pregnant Women
	Suggested Reading
8: CT Angiography of Thoracic Aorta
	8.1	 Examination Techniques
		8.1.1	 Preparation Before Examination
		8.1.2	 Scanning Technique
			8.1.2.1	 Conventional CTA
			8.1.2.2	 ECG-Gated CTA
			8.1.2.3	 Dual-Energy CTA
		8.1.3	 Contrast Agent Injection Techniques
	8.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	8.3	 Thoracic Aortic Anatomy and Variants
		8.3.1	 Ascending Aorta
			8.3.1.1	 Gross Anatomy
			8.3.1.2	 Variants
		8.3.2	 Aortic Arch
			8.3.2.1	 Gross Anatomy
			8.3.2.2	 Variants
		8.3.3	 Descending Aorta
			8.3.3.1	 Gross Anatomy
			8.3.3.2	 Variants
	8.4	 Clinical Applications
		8.4.1	 Aortic Atherosclerosis
			8.4.1.1	 Overview
			8.4.1.2	 CTA Findings
			8.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.2	 Aortic Dissection
			8.4.2.1	 Overview
			8.4.2.2	 Classification
				8.4.2.2.1 DeBakey Classification
				8.4.2.2.2 Stanford Classification
					Stanford Type A
					Stanford Type B
			8.4.2.3	 CTA Findings
			8.4.2.4	 CTA Findings
			8.4.2.5	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.3	 Aortic Intramural Hematoma
			8.4.3.1	 Overview
			8.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
				8.4.3.2.1 Non-Enhanced CT
				8.4.3.2.2 CTA Findings
			8.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.4	 Penetrating Aortic Ulcer
			8.4.4.1	 Overview
			8.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			8.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.5	 Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm
			8.4.5.1	 Overview
			8.4.5.2	 CTA Findings
				8.4.5.2.1 True Aneurysm
					Non-Enhanced CT
					CTA Findings
				8.4.5.2.2 Pseudoaneurysm
					Non-Enhanced CT
					CTA Findings
			8.4.5.3	 Preoperative and Postoperative Evaluation
			8.4.5.4	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.6	 Aortic Injury
			8.4.6.1	 Overview
			8.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			8.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.7	 Aortic Coarctation and Interruption of the Aortic Arch
			8.4.7.1	 Aortic Coarctation
				8.4.7.1.1 Overview
				8.4.7.1.2 CTA Findings
					Non-Enhanced CT
					CTA Findings
					Postoperative Follow-Up
				8.4.7.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			8.4.7.2	 Interruption of the Aortic Arch
				8.4.7.2.1 Overview
				8.4.7.2.2 CTA Findings
				8.4.7.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.8	 Marfan Syndrome
			8.4.8.1	 Overview
			8.4.8.2	 CTA Findings
			8.4.8.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.9	 Takayasu Arteritis
			8.4.9.1	 Overview
			8.4.9.2	 CTA Findings
			8.4.9.3	 Preoperative Evaluation and Postoperative Follow-Up
			8.4.9.4	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.10	 Aortic Sinus Aneurysm
			8.4.10.1	 Overview
			8.4.10.2	 CTA Findings
			8.4.10.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		8.4.11	 Endoleak After Aortic Dissection Surgery
		8.4.12	 Imaging Evaluation for Aortic Lesion Surgery
			8.4.12.1	 Aortic Dissection
				8.4.12.1.1 Surgical Treatment
				8.4.12.1.2 Interventional Treatment
			8.4.12.2	 Aortic Aneurysm
				8.4.12.2.1 Surgical Treatment
				8.4.12.2.2 Intervention Treatment
			8.4.12.3	 Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation (TAVI)
	8.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	8.6	 New Advances in Thoracic Aortic CT Angiography
	Suggested Reading
9: CT Angiography of Coronary Arteries and Veins
	9.1	 Imaging Technology
		9.1.1	 Preparation
			9.1.1.1	 Explanation and Inquiry
			9.1.1.2	 Informed Consent
			9.1.1.3	 Heart Rate and Arrhythmias
			9.1.1.4	 Intravenous Access
			9.1.1.5	 Breath-Holding Training
			9.1.1.6	 Radiation Protection
		9.1.2	 Scanning Protocols
			9.1.2.1	 Localization Image and Scanning Range
				9.1.2.1.1 Scan Range for CCTA
			9.1.2.2	 Coronary Artery Calcium Score (CACS) Scanning
			9.1.2.3	 Scan Delay Time (Circulation Time)
			9.1.2.4	 CCTA Acquisition
		9.1.3	 Contrast Agent Injection Protocols
			9.1.3.1	 Iodine Delivery Rate
			9.1.3.2	 Injection Phase Protocols
			9.1.3.3	 Delayed Scan
	9.2	 Image Postprocessing Technology
		9.2.1	 Coronary Artery Calcium Score
		9.2.2	 CCTA
			9.2.2.1	 Select the Optimal Reconstruction Phase
			9.2.2.2	 Electrocardiogram (ECG) Editing Processing
			9.2.2.3	 Image Postprocessing Technology
			9.2.2.4	 Image Display
	9.3	 Anatomy and Variation of Coronary Arteries and Veins
		9.3.1	 Coronary Artery Anatomy
			9.3.1.1	 RCA
			9.3.1.2	 LAD
			9.3.1.3	 LCX
		9.3.2	 Anatomic Variants in the Coronary Artery
			9.3.2.1	 Anomalies of Coronary Artery Origin
				9.3.2.1.1 High Takeoff
				9.3.2.1.2 Multiple Ostia
				9.3.2.1.3 Single Coronary Artery
				9.3.2.1.4 Anomalous Origin of Coronary Artery from Pulmonary Artery
				9.3.2.1.5 Coronary Artery or Its Branches Originated from the Contralateral or Noncoronary Sinus
			9.3.2.2	 Anomalies of Coronary Artery Course
				9.3.2.2.1 Myocardial Bridge (MB)
				9.3.2.2.2 Coronary Artery Duplication
			9.3.2.3	 Anomalies of Coronary Artery Termination
				9.3.2.3.1 Coronary Artery Fistula
				9.3.2.3.2 Coronary Artery Arch
				9.3.2.3.3 Extracardiac Termination
		9.3.3	 Coronary Vein Anatomy
			9.3.3.1	 Anatomy and Variants of Coronary Veins
				9.3.3.1.1 Coronary Sinus Variant
			9.3.3.2	 Clinical Value of Coronary CT Venous Imaging
				9.3.3.2.1 Radiofrequency Ablation
				9.3.3.2.2 Pacemaker Implantation
	9.4	 Clinical Applications
		9.4.1	 Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
			9.4.1.1	 Overview
			9.4.1.2	 CT Findings
				9.4.1.2.1 Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaque
				9.4.1.2.2 Coronary Stenosis or Occlusion
					Coronary Subtotal Occlusion and Chronic Total Occlusion
					Factors Affecting the Diagnosis of Coronary Stenosis by CTA
					Application of CT-FFR
				9.4.1.2.3 Myocardial Ischemia or Infarct
			9.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		9.4.2	 Coronary Artery Aneurysm
			9.4.2.1	 Overview
			9.4.2.2	 CT Findings
			9.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				9.4.2.3.1 Atherosclerotic Coronary Artery Aneurysm
				9.4.2.3.2 Coronary Artery Aneurysm of Kawasaki Disease
				9.4.2.3.3 IgG4-Related Coronary Artery Aneurysm
		9.4.3	 Coronary Artery Dissection
			9.4.3.1	 Overview
			9.4.3.2	 CT Findings
		9.4.4	 Coronary Inflammatory Disease
			9.4.4.1	 Overview
			9.4.4.2	 CT Findings
		9.4.5	 Evaluation of Coronary Stent Implantation
			9.4.5.1	 Overview
			9.4.5.2	 CT Findings
		9.4.6	 Evaluation of Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting
			9.4.6.1	 Overview
			9.4.6.2	 CT Findings
		9.4.7	 Detection and Treatment of Extracardiac Abnormalities on Coronary CTA
			9.4.7.1	 Pulmonary Nodules
			9.4.7.2	 Vascular Abnormalities
			9.4.7.3	 Pneumothorax and Other Chest Wall Abnormalities
			9.4.7.4	 Lymph Nodes in the Mediastinum
			9.4.7.5	 Hiatal Hernia in the Mediastinum
			9.4.7.6	 Upper Abdominal Disorders
	9.5	 Comparison of Imaging Technologies
	9.6	 New Progress in Coronary CT Angiography
		9.6.1	 The Application of CTA in the Prognostic Assessment of Coronary Heart Disease
			9.6.1.1	 Predictive Value of Coronary Artery Calcification Progression for Cardiovascular Events
			9.6.1.2	 The Predictive Value of Conventional Coronary CTA for Cardiovascular Events
		9.6.2	 CCTA and Coronary Intervention
			9.6.2.1	 Diagnosis of Coronary Artery Stenosis on CCTA
			9.6.2.2	 Evaluation of Coronary Plaque Characteristics by CCTA
			9.6.2.3	 Evaluation and Guidance of CTO by CCTA
			9.6.2.4	 Evaluation of Diffuse Calcified Lesions by CCTA
			9.6.2.5	 Preoperative Evaluation of Anatomical Variation by CCTA
		9.6.3	 Coronary CT-Derived Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR)
			9.6.3.1	 The Basic Principle of CT-FFR
			9.6.3.2	 Diagnostic Accuracy of CT-FFR
			9.6.3.3	 The Clinical Application Value of CT-FFR
				9.6.3.3.1 Guiding Subsequent Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategies
				9.6.3.3.2 Socioeconomic Benefits
				9.6.3.3.3 Treatment Planning Based on Virtual Stent Placement
			9.6.3.4	 Limitations of CT-FFR
		9.6.4	 Recent Progress of CT Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
			9.6.4.1	 Development of CTP Imaging Technology
			9.6.4.2	 CTP Scanning Protocol
				9.6.4.2.1 Static Scanning
				9.6.4.2.2 Dynamic Scanning
			9.6.4.3	 Clinical Application of CTP
				9.6.4.3.1 Diagnostic Performance in Myocardial Ischemia
				9.6.4.3.2 Identification of Infarcted Myocardium and Viable Myocardium
				9.6.4.3.3 Assessment of Microcirculatory Obstruction
		9.6.5	 Intracoronary Transluminal Attenuation Gradient (TAG)
			9.6.5.1	 Advantages and Clinical Application of TAG
				9.6.5.1.1 Diagnostic Performance of Coronary Artery Calcification and In-Stent Restenosis
				9.6.5.1.2 Differential Diagnosis Between SO and CTO
				9.6.5.1.3 Evaluation of Collateral Circulation of CTO Lesions
				9.6.5.1.4 Evaluation of Hemodynamic Changes in the Myocardial Bridge (MB)
			9.6.5.2	 Limitations of TAG
		9.6.6	 Radiomics, Machine Learning, and CCTA
			9.6.6.1	 Application of Radiomics in Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
			9.6.6.2	 Application of Machine Learning in CAD
		9.6.7	 Recent Progress in Plaque Composition Analysis of CCTA
		9.6.8	 Application of CT in Chest Pain Triple Rule-Out (TRO)
		9.6.9	 Recent Progress of Epicardial Adipose Tissue on CT
			9.6.9.1	 Measurement Method of the CT Value of EAT
			9.6.9.2	 EAT Volume and CAD
			9.6.9.3	 The Relationship Between the CT Value of EAT and High-Risk Plaque
		9.6.10	 Hemodynamic Measurement Based on CCTA
	Suggested Reading
10: CT Angiography of the Abdominal Aorta
	10.1	 Imaging Technology
		10.1.1	 Scanning Protocol
			10.1.1.1	 Non-enhanced CT Imaging
			10.1.1.2	 CT Angiography
		10.1.2	 Injection of Contrast Agents
	10.2	 Postprocessing Techniques
	10.3	 Normal Anatomy and Variant Anatomy of the Abdominal Aorta
		10.3.1	 Parietal Branches
		10.3.2	 Visceral Branches
			10.3.2.1	 Renal Artery
			10.3.2.2	 Testicular Artery or Ovarian Artery
			10.3.2.3	 Celiac Axis
				10.3.2.3.1 Left Gastric Artery
				10.3.2.3.2 Common Hepatic Artery
				10.3.2.3.3 Splenic Artery
			10.3.2.4	 Superior Mesenteric Artery
			10.3.2.5	 Inferior Mesenteric Artery
			10.3.2.6	 Common Iliac Artery and Its Branches
		10.3.3	 Variants of the Abdominal Aorta
			10.3.3.1	 Transverse Abnormality of the Abdominal Aorta
			10.3.3.2	 Interruption of the Abdominal Aorta
	10.4	 Clinical Applications
		10.4.1	 Atherosclerosis of the Abdominal Aorta
			10.4.1.1	 Overview
			10.4.1.2	 CTA Manifestations
			10.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		10.4.2	 Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
			10.4.2.1	 Overview
				10.4.2.1.1 Classification of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
			10.4.2.2	 CTA Findings
				10.4.2.2.1 CTA Findings of True Aneurysm
				10.4.2.2.2 CTA Findings of Pseudoaneurysm
			10.4.2.3	 Preoperative Assessment
			10.4.2.4	 Postoperative Assessment
			10.4.2.5	 Differential Diagnosis
		10.4.3	 Abdominal Aortic Dissection
			10.4.3.1	 Overview
			10.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
			10.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		10.4.4	 Aortic Intramural Hematoma
			10.4.4.1	 Overview
			10.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			10.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		10.4.5	 Aortic Stenosis/Occlusion
			10.4.5.1	 Overview
			10.4.5.2	 CTA Findings
			10.4.5.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		10.4.6	 Takayasu Arteritis
			10.4.6.1	 Overview
			10.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			10.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		10.4.7	 Trauma of the Abdominal Aorta
	10.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	10.6	 Advances in CT Angiography of the Abdominal Aorta
	Suggested Reading
11: Liver CT Angiography
	11.1	 Examination Technology
		11.1.1	 Preparation Before Scanning
		11.1.2	 Scanning Method and Scanning Parameters
			11.1.2.1	 CT Scanning Parameters
			11.1.2.2	 Contrast Agent Injection and Scanning Technology
			11.1.2.3	 Commonly Used Scanning Phase Settings for Liver CTA
			11.1.2.4	 Infant Liver CTA Parameters
	11.2	 Image Postprocessing Technology
	11.3	 Anatomy of and Variation in Hepatic Vessels
		11.3.1	 Hepatic Artery
			11.3.1.1	 Hepatic Artery Anatomy
			11.3.1.2	 Anatomical Variants and Classification of Hepatic Artery
		11.3.2	 Portal Vein
			11.3.2.1	 Anatomy and Variants of Portal Vein
			11.3.2.2	 Portal Vein Tributary and Collateral Circulation
		11.3.3	 Hepatic Vein
			11.3.3.1	 Hepatic Vein Anatomy
			11.3.3.2	 Hepatic Vein Variants
	11.4	 Clinical Applications
		11.4.1	 Hepatic Artery Disease
			11.4.1.1	 Hepatic Artery Stenosis
				11.4.1.1.1 Overview
				11.4.1.1.2 CTA Findings
				11.4.1.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.1.2	 Hepatic Aneurysm
				11.4.1.2.1 Overview
				11.4.1.2.2 CTA Findings
				11.4.1.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.1.3	 Hepatic Arteriovenous Shunt
				11.4.1.3.1 Overview
				11.4.1.3.2 CTA Findings
					CT Features
					Types of Hepatic Arteriovenous Shunts
					Evaluation of the Degree of Hepatic Arteriovenous Shunts
				11.4.1.3.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.1.4	 Hepatic Vascular Malformation
				11.4.1.4.1 Overview
					Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia (Also Known as Osler-Weber-Rendu Syndrome)
					Idiopathic Hepatic Arterial Malformation
				11.4.1.4.2 CTA Findings
				11.4.1.4.3 Differential Diagnosis
		11.4.2	 Portal Vein Disease
			11.4.2.1	 Portal Vein Thrombosis
				11.4.2.1.1 Overview
				11.4.2.1.2 CTV Findings
				11.4.2.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.2.2	 Portal Hypertension
				11.4.2.2.1 Overview
				11.4.2.2.2 CTV Findings
					Esophageal and Gastric Varices
					Varices of the Paraumbilical Vein and Abdominal Wall
					Splenorenal Vein Shunt and Gastrorenal Vein Shunt
					Right Posterior Branch of the Portal Vein and IVC Shunt
					Other Varices
				11.4.2.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.2.3	 Cavernous Transformation of the Portal Vein
				11.4.2.3.1 Overview
				11.4.2.3.2 CTV Findings
				11.4.2.3.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.2.4	 Portal Vein Tumor
				11.4.2.4.1 Overview
				11.4.2.4.2 CTV Findings
				11.4.2.4.3 Differential Diagnosis
		11.4.3	 Hepatic Venous Disease
			11.4.3.1	 Budd-Chiari Syndrome
				11.4.3.1.1 Overview
				11.4.3.1.2 CTV Findings
				11.4.3.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			11.4.3.2	 Hepatic Veno-Occlusive Disease
				11.4.3.2.1 Overview
				11.4.3.2.2 CTV Findings
				11.4.3.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
		11.4.4	 Liver Tumor
			11.4.4.1	 Overview
			11.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			11.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		11.4.5	 Preoperative and Postoperative Evaluation of Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt
			11.4.5.1	 Overview
				11.4.5.1.1 Preoperative Evaluation
				11.4.5.1.2 Postoperative Evaluation
		11.4.6	 Liver Transplantation
			11.4.6.1	 Preoperative Evaluation of Liver Transplantation
		11.4.7	 Evaluation of Donors Before Living Donor Liver Transplantation
			11.4.7.1	 Vascular Evaluation
			11.4.7.2	 Assessment of the Biliary System
			11.4.7.3	 Volume Measurement
		11.4.8	 Evaluation of Recipients Before Liver Transplantation
			11.4.8.1	 Evaluation of Liver Lesions
			11.4.8.2	 Vascular Evaluation
		11.4.9	 Evaluation After Liver Transplantation
			11.4.9.1	 Evaluation of Vascular Complications After Liver Transplantation
				11.4.9.1.1 Overview
				11.4.9.1.2 CT Findings
			11.4.9.2	 Evaluation of Hepatic Venous Congestion After Living-Related Liver Transplantation
				11.4.9.2.1 Overview
				11.4.9.2.2 CT Findings
			11.4.9.3	 Evaluation of Liver Regeneration After Living Donor Liver Transplantation
			11.4.9.4	 Recurrence of Liver Cancer
		11.4.10 Other Complications
	11.5	 Comparison of Imaging Technologies
	11.6	 New Advances in Liver CT Angiography
		11.6.1	 Progress of CTA Technology
		11.6.2	 Progress of Digital Medical Technology Based on CTA
	Suggested Reading
12: CT Angiography of Spleen
	12.1	 Scanning Techniques
		12.1.1	 Preparation before Scanning
		12.1.2	 Scanning Methods
			12.1.2.1	 CT Scanning and Parameters
			12.1.2.2	 Contrast Agent Injection and Scanning Techniques
	12.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	12.3	 Anatomy and Variants of Splenic Vasculature
		12.3.1	 Anatomy of Splenic Artery
			12.3.1.1	 Origin of Splenic Artery
			12.3.1.2	 Gross Anatomy of Splenic Artery
			12.3.1.3	 Types of Splenic Artery Branches
			12.3.1.4	 Splenic Polar Artery
			12.3.1.5	 Splenic Artery Variants
		12.3.2	 Splenic Vein Anatomy
			12.3.2.1	 Gross Anatomy of Splenic Vein
			12.3.2.2	 Types of Splenic Vein Branches
			12.3.2.3	 Polar Splenic Vein
	12.4	 Clinical Applications
		12.4.1	 Splenic Artery Aneurysm
			12.4.1.1	 Splenic Artery Aneurysm
				12.4.1.1.1 Overview
				12.4.1.1.2 CTA Findings
				12.4.1.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			12.4.1.2	 Splenic Artery Pseudoaneurysm
				12.4.1.2.1 Overview
				12.4.1.2.2 CTA Findings
				12.4.1.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
		12.4.2	 Splenic Infarction
			12.4.2.1	 Overview
			12.4.2.2	 CTA Findings
			12.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		12.4.3	 Other Lesions Involving Splenic Arteries and Veins
			12.4.3.1	 Lesions Involving the Splenic Artery
				12.4.3.1.1 Portal Hypertensive Vasculopathy of the Splenic Artery
					Overview
					CTA Findings
					Differential Diagnosis
			12.4.3.2	 Lesions Involving the Splenic Vein
				12.4.3.2.1 Splenorenal Venous Shunt
					Overview
					CTV Findings
				12.4.3.2.2 Splenic Vein Thrombosis
					Overview
					CTV Findings
					Differential Diagnosis
			12.4.3.3	 Lesions Involving Both the Splenic Artery and Splenic Vein
	12.5	 Comparison of Imaging Technologies
	12.6	 New Advances in Splenic CTA
	Suggested Reading
13: CT Angiography of Mesenteric Circulation
	13.1	 Scanning Techniques
		13.1.1	 Preparation Before Scanning
		13.1.2	 CT Scanning Technique
		13.1.3	 Contrast Medium Injection Techniques
	13.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	13.3	 Anatomy and Variation in Mesenteric Vessels
		13.3.1	 Celiac Trunk
			13.3.1.1	 Gross Anatomy
			13.3.1.2	 Anatomic Variants
		13.3.2	 Superior Mesenteric Artery
			13.3.2.1	 Gross Anatomy
				13.3.2.1.1 Opening Position of the SMA and Diameter of the Main Trunk
				13.3.2.1.2 Angle of the SMA
				13.3.2.1.3 Spatial Course and Branches of the SMA
				13.3.2.1.4 Anatomical Variants
		13.3.3	 Inferior Mesenteric Artery
		13.3.4	 Superior Mesenteric Vein
		13.3.5	 Inferior Mesenteric Vein
	13.4	 Clinical Application
		13.4.1	 Mesenteric Ischemic Disease
			13.4.1.1	 Celiac Trunk Stenosis and Occlusion
				13.4.1.1.1 Overview
				13.4.1.1.2 CTA Findings
				13.4.1.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			13.4.1.2	 Acute SMA Embolism
				13.4.1.2.1 Overview
				13.4.1.2.2 CTA Findings
					Direct Signs
					Indirect Signs
			13.4.1.3	 Acute Embolism of the Inferior Mesenteric Artery
				13.4.1.3.1 Overview
				13.4.1.3.2 CTA Findings
			13.4.1.4	 Chronic Mesenteric Artery Embolism
				13.4.1.4.1 Overview
				13.4.1.4.2 CTA Findings
			13.4.1.5	 Mesenteric Artery Atherosclerosis
				13.4.1.5.1 Overview
				13.4.1.5.2 CTA Findings
			13.4.1.6	 Nonocclusive Mesenteric Ischemia
			13.4.1.7	 Superior Mesenteric Vein Thrombosis
				13.4.1.7.1 Overview
				13.4.1.7.2 CTA Findings
					Direct Signs
					Indirect Signs
				13.4.1.7.3 Differential Diagnosis
					SMA Disease
					Tumor Thrombus in the Superior Mesenteric Vein
		13.4.2	 Compression Syndrome
			13.4.2.1	 SMA Compression Syndrome
				13.4.2.1.1 Overview
				13.4.2.1.2 CTA Findings
				13.4.2.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
					Duodenal and Mesenteric Mass
					Acute and Chronic Acute Abdomen Caused by Mesenteric Ischemic Disease
			13.4.2.2	 Nutcracker Syndrome
		13.4.3	 Visceral Artery Aneurysms
			13.4.3.1	 Overview
			13.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				13.4.3.3.1 Severe Atherosclerosis of the SMA
				13.4.3.3.2 SMA Dissection
		13.4.4	 Spontaneous Visceral Artery Dissection
			13.4.4.1	 Overview
			13.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				13.4.4.3.1 SMA Thrombosis
		13.4.5	 Mesenteric Vascular Malformation
			13.4.5.1	 Overview
			13.4.5.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.5.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				13.4.5.3.1 Superior Mesenteric Aneurysms
		13.4.6	 Takayasu Arteritis
			13.4.6.1	 Overview
			13.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				13.4.6.3.1 SMA Atherosclerosis
				13.4.6.3.2 Lupus Mesenteric Vasculitis
		13.4.7	 Gastrointestinal Bleeding
			13.4.7.1	 Overview
			13.4.7.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.7.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		13.4.8	 Small Bowel Volvulus
			13.4.8.1	 Overview
			13.4.8.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.8.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		13.4.9	 Evaluation of Tumor Blood Supply
		13.4.10	 Mesenteric Venous Tumor
			13.4.10.1	 Overview
			13.4.10.2	 CTA Findings
			13.4.10.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		13.4.11	 Pre- and Post-operative Evaluation of Small Bowel Transplantation
			13.4.11.1	 Overview
			13.4.11.2	 CTA Findings
	13.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	13.6	 Recent Advances in CT Angiography of Mesenteric Circulation
		13.6.1	 Application of Dual-Energy CT
		13.6.2	 Application of Computational Fluid Mechanics
	Suggested Reading
14: CT Angiography of Pancreatic Lesions
	14.1	 Examination Techniques
		14.1.1	 Preparations Before Scanning
		14.1.2	 Scan Methods and Parameters
			14.1.2.1	 CT Scan Parameters
			14.1.2.2	 Contrast Agent Injection Technique
	14.2	 Image Postprocessing Technology
	14.3	 Anatomy of Pancreatic Vessels
		14.3.1	 Arterial System
		14.3.2	 Venous System
	14.4	 Clinical Applications
		14.4.1	 Vascular Invasion of Pancreatic Cancer
			14.4.1.1	 Mechanisms of Vascular Invasion of Pancreatic Cancer
			14.4.1.2	 Assessment Criteria for Vascular Invasion of Pancreatic Cancer
			14.4.1.3	 Tumor Invasion of Pancreatic (Peripancreatic) Arteries
			14.4.1.4	 Tumor Invasion of Pancreatic (Peripancreatic) Veins
				14.4.1.4.1 Splenic Vein Obstruction/Occlusion
				14.4.1.4.2 Obstruction/Occlusion of the Main Portal Vein
				14.4.1.4.3 Obstruction/Occlusion of the Superior Mesenteric Vein
				14.4.1.4.4 Dilated Peripancreatic Venules
				14.4.1.4.5 Vascular Invasion of Tumors at Different Sites
		14.4.2	 Vascular Complications of Pancreatitis
			14.4.2.1	 Arterial Complications of Pancreatitis
				14.4.2.1.1 Clinical Characteristics and Pathological Mechanism
				14.4.2.1.2 Classifications of Complications
					Direct Arterial Erosion
					Pseudoaneurysm
					Arterial Thrombosis Leads to Occlusion, Causing Ischemic Necrosis of the Supplying Organs
					Nonocclusive Visceral Ischemia
				14.4.2.1.3 Imaging Findings
			14.4.2.2	 Venous Complications of Pancreatitis
				14.4.2.2.1 Clinical Characteristics and Pathological Mechanism
				14.4.2.2.2 Classifications of Complications
					Thrombosis
					Varicose Veins
					Venous Bleeding
					Pseudoaneurysm of the Vein
				14.4.2.2.3 Imaging Findings
	14.5	 Comparison of Image Modalities
	14.6	 Advances in Research on Pancreatic CT Angiography
		14.6.1	 CT Perfusion Imaging of the Pancreas
		14.6.2	 Dual-Energy CT
	Suggested Reading
15: CT Angiography of the Urogenital System
	15.1	 Examination Technique
		15.1.1	 Preparation Before Scanning
		15.1.2	 Scanning Method and Scanning Parameters
			15.1.2.1	 CT Scanning Parameters
				15.1.2.1.1 Kidney
				15.1.2.1.2 Pelvis
				15.1.2.1.3 CT Urology (CTU)
			15.1.2.2	 Contrast Agent Injecting Technique
				15.1.2.2.1 Empirical Timing Method
				15.1.2.2.2 Test Bolus Method
				15.1.2.2.3 Bolus Tracking Method
	15.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	15.3	 Renal Vascular Anatomy and Variants
		15.3.1	 Renal Artery
			15.3.1.1	 Gross Anatomy
			15.3.1.2	 Anatomic Variants
				15.3.1.2.1 Accessory Renal Artery
				15.3.1.2.2 Early-Branching Renal Artery
		15.3.2	 Renal Vein
			15.3.2.1	 Gross Anatomy
			15.3.2.2	 Anatomic Variants
	15.4	 Clinical Applications
		15.4.1	 Renal Artery Stenosis
			15.4.1.1	 Overview
			15.4.1.2	 CTA Findings
			15.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.2	 Renal Aneurysm
			15.4.2.1	 Overview
			15.4.2.2	 CTA Findings
			15.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.3	 Renal Arteriovenous Malformation
			15.4.3.1	 Overview
			15.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
			15.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.4	 Renal Artery Dissection
			15.4.4.1	 Overview
			15.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			15.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.5	 Renal Vein Embolism
			15.4.5.1	 Renal Vein Thrombosis
				15.4.5.1.1 Overview
				15.4.5.1.2 CTA Performance
				15.4.5.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			15.4.5.2	 Renal Vein Tumor Embolism
				15.4.5.2.1 Overview
				15.4.5.2.2 CTA Findings
				15.4.5.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.6	 Nutcracker Syndrome
			15.4.6.1	 Overview
			15.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			15.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.7	 Trauma
			15.4.7.1	 Overview
			15.4.7.2	 CTA Findings
			15.4.7.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		15.4.8	 Renal Tumor
			15.4.8.1	 Overview
			15.4.8.2	 CTA Findings
		15.4.9	 Kidney Transplantation
			15.4.9.1	 Preoperative Evaluation of Kidney Transplantation
				15.4.9.1.1 Overview
				15.4.9.1.2 CTA Findings
					Donor Kidney Assessment
					Receptor Assessment
			15.4.9.2	 Posttransplant Evaluation of Kidney Transplantation
				15.4.9.2.1 Overview
				15.4.9.2.2 CTA Findings
		15.4.10 Combined Pancreas-Kidney Transplantation
			15.4.10.1	 Overview
			15.4.10.2	 CTA Findings
		15.4.11 Pelvic Diseases
			15.4.11.1	 Female Pelvic Artery Anatomy
			15.4.11.2	 Pelvic Congestion Syndrome (PCS)
				15.4.11.2.1 Overview
				15.4.11.2.2 CTV Findings
				15.4.11.2.3 Male Pelvic Artery Anatomy and Lesions
					Testicular Artery
	15.5	 Comparison of Imaging Technologies
	15.6	 New Advances in CT Angiography of the Genitourinary System
	Suggested Reading
16: CT Angiography of Lower Extremities
	16.1	 Examination Techniques
		16.1.1	 CT Scanning Technology
		16.1.2	 Contrast Injection Techniques
			16.1.2.1	 CT Imaging of Lower Extremity Arteries
			16.1.2.2	 CT Imaging of Lower Extremity Veins
	16.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	16.3	 Vascular Anatomy and Variants of the Lower Extremity
		16.3.1	 Arterial System of Lower Extremity (Fig. 16.2)
			16.3.1.1	 Common Iliac Artery
			16.3.1.2	 Internal Iliac Artery
			16.3.1.3	 External Iliac Artery
			16.3.1.4	 Femoral Artery
			16.3.1.5	 Popliteal Artery
			16.3.1.6	 Anterior Tibial Artery
			16.3.1.7	 Posterior Tibial Artery
			16.3.1.8	 Arteries of the Foot
		16.3.2	 Venous System of Lower Extremities (Fig. 16.8)
			16.3.2.1	 Common Iliac Vein
			16.3.2.2	 Internal Iliac Vein
			16.3.2.3	 External Iliac Veins
			16.3.2.4	 Superficial Veins of the Lower Extremities
			16.3.2.5	 Deep Veins of the Lower Extremities
			16.3.2.6	 Venous System of the Foot
		16.3.3	 Anatomical Variants in the Lower Extremity Vessels
	16.4	 Clinical Applications
		16.4.1	 Atherosclerosis of the Lower Extremities
			16.4.1.1	 Overview
			16.4.1.2	 CTA Findings
			16.4.1.3	 Preoperative and Postoperative Evaluations
			16.4.1.4	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.1.4.1 Acute Arterial Embolism of the Lower Extremity
				16.4.1.4.2 Multiple Arteritis
				16.4.1.4.3 Thromboembolic Vasculitis
				16.4.1.4.4 Idiopathic Atherothrombosis
		16.4.2	 Thromboembolic Vasculitis
			16.4.2.1	 Overview
			16.4.2.2	 CTA Findings
			16.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.2.3.1 Atherosclerosis of the Lower Extremities
				16.4.2.3.2 Multiple Arteritis
				16.4.2.3.3 Idiopathic Atherothrombosis
		16.4.3	 Aneurysm of the Lower Extremities
			16.4.3.1	 Overview
			16.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
			16.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.3.3.1 Hematoma or Inflammatory Mass
				16.4.3.3.2 Arteriovenous Fistula of the Lower Extremities
		16.4.4	 Arteriovenous Fistula of the Lower Extremities
			16.4.4.1	 Overview
			16.4.4.2	 CTA Features
			16.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.4.3.1 Arteriovenous Malformations of the Lower Extremities
				16.4.4.3.2 Aneurysms of the Lower Extremities
		16.4.5	 Vascular Injury of the Lower Extremities
			16.4.5.1	 Overview
			16.4.5.2	 CTA Findings
			16.4.5.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		16.4.6	 Popliteal Artery Entrapment Syndrome (PAES)
			16.4.6.1	 Overview
			16.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			16.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.6.3.1 Atherosclerotic Occlusion of the Lower Extremities
				16.4.6.3.2 Acute Arterial Embolism of the Lower Extremities
				16.4.6.3.3 Adventitial Cyst of the Popliteal Artery
		16.4.7	 Venous Thrombosis of the Lower Extremities
			16.4.7.1	 Overview
			16.4.7.2	 CTV Findings
			16.4.7.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.7.3.1 Cockett Syndrome
				16.4.7.3.2 Varicose Veins of the Lower Extremities
		16.4.8	 Varicose Veins of the Lower Extremities
			16.4.8.1	 Overview
			16.4.8.2	 CTV Findings
			16.4.8.3	 Differential Diagnosis
				16.4.8.3.1 Venous Aneurysm
				16.4.8.3.2 Cockett Syndrome
		16.4.9	 Blood Vessels and Tumors of the Lower Extremities
	16.5	 Comparisons of Imaging Technologies
	16.6	 New Advances in CT Angiography of the Lower Extremities
		16.6.1	 Reducing the Radiation Dose in Lower Extremity CTA
		16.6.2	 Optimal Utilization of Contrast Agent for Lower Extremity CTA
		16.6.3	 CT Perfusion Imaging of the Lower Extremities
	Suggested Reading
17: CT Angiography of the Upper Extremity
	17.1	 Examination Techniques
		17.1.1 CT Scanning Technology
		17.1.2 Contrast Injection Techniques
	17.2	 Image Postprocessing Technologies
	17.3	 Vascular Anatomy and Variants in Upper Extremity Vessels
		17.3.1 Arteries of the Upper Extremity
			17.3.1.1	 Axillary Artery
			17.3.1.2	 Brachial Artery
			17.3.1.3	 Cubital Articular Rete
			17.3.1.4	 Radial Artery
			17.3.1.5	 Ulnar Artery
			17.3.1.6	 Variants in the Forearm Arteries
			17.3.1.7	 Hand Arteries
		17.3.2 Veins of the Upper Extremity
			17.3.2.1	 Superficial Veins of the Upper Extremity
			17.3.2.2	 Deep Veins of the Upper Extremity
	17.4	 Clinical Applications
		17.4.1 Atherosclerosis of the Upper Extremity Arteries
			17.4.1.1	 Overview
			17.4.1.2	 CTA Findings
			17.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.2 Takayasu Arteritis
			17.4.2.1	 Overview
			17.4.2.2	 CTA Findings
			17.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.3 Arterial Embolism of the Upper Extremity
			17.4.3.1	 Overview
			17.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
			17.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.4 Aneurysm of the Upper Extremity
			17.4.4.1	 Overview
			17.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			17.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.5 Vascular Injury of the Upper Extremity Arteries
			17.4.5.1	 Overview
			17.4.5.2	 CTA Findings
			17.4.5.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.6 Arteriovenous Fistula of the Upper Extremity
			17.4.6.1	 Overview
			17.4.6.2	 CTA Findings
			17.4.6.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.7 Venous Thrombosis of the Upper Extremity
			17.4.7.1	 Overview
			17.4.7.2	 CTV Findings
			17.4.7.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.8 Venous Aneurysm of the Upper Extremity
			17.4.8.1	 Overview
			17.4.8.2	 CTV Findings
			17.4.8.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.9 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
			17.4.9.1	 Overview
			17.4.9.2	 CT Findings
			17.4.9.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.4.10 Tumor-Vessel Relationship in the Upper Extremity
			17.4.10.1	 Overview
			17.4.10.2	 CTA Findings
		17.4.11 Application of Intravenous Dialysis Tubes
			17.4.11.1	 Overview
			17.4.11.2	 CTA and CTV Assessment
		17.4.12 Others
	17.5	 Comparisons of Imaging Technologies
	17.6	 New Advances in CT Angiography of Upper Extremity
		17.6.1 Low Radiation Dose CTA
		17.6.2 Improving Image Quality for CTV of the Upper Extremity
		17.6.3 Dual-Energy CT
	Suggested Reading
18: CT Venography of Superior Vena Cava
	18.1	 Examination Techniques
		18.1.1	 Precautions Before Scanning
		18.1.2	 CT Scanning Technique
		18.1.3	 Contrast Agent Injection Technique
	18.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	18.3	 Anatomy of and Variation in the Superior Vena Cava
		18.3.1	 Normal Anatomy
		18.3.2	 Variants in the SVC
			18.3.2.1	 Persistent Left SVC (Double SVC)
			18.3.2.2	 Isolated Left SVC
			18.3.2.3	 Aberrant Left Brachiocephalic Vein
			18.3.2.4	 Right Upper Lobe Partial Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (PAPVR)
	18.4	 Clinical Application
		18.4.1	 SVC Syndrome
			18.4.1.1	 Overview
			18.4.1.2	 CTV Findings
			18.4.1.3	 CT Findings of SVC Syndrome Caused by Different Etiologies
				18.4.1.3.1 SVC Invaded by Lung Cancer
				18.4.1.3.2 Lymphoma
				18.4.1.3.3 Metastatic Tumor of the Mediastinum
				18.4.1.3.4 Other Malignant Tumors of the Mediastinum
			18.4.1.4	 Collateral Circulation Vessels
				18.4.1.4.1 Collateral Circulation Vessels in the Chest
				18.4.1.4.2 Collateral Circulation Vessels in the Abdomen
			18.4.1.5	 Chest and Abdominal Wall Edema
			18.4.1.6	 Differential Diagnosis
		18.4.2	 Superior Vena Cava Thrombus
			18.4.2.1	 Overview
			18.4.2.2	 CTV Findings
			18.4.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		18.4.3	 SVC Aneurysm
			18.4.3.1	 Overview
			18.4.3.2	 CTV Findings
			18.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		18.4.4	 Other Diseases
	18.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	18.6	 Recent Advances in CT Angiography of the SVC
	Suggested Reading
19: CT Angiography of the Inferior Vena Cava
	19.1	 Examination Techniques
		19.1.1	 CT Scanning Technique
		19.1.2	 Contrast Agent Injection Technique
	19.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	19.3	 IVC Anatomy and Variants
		19.3.1	 Normal Anatomy of the IVC
		19.3.2	 Anatomical Variants in the IVC
			19.3.2.1	 Suprarenal Segment
			19.3.2.2	 Renal Segment
				19.3.2.2.1 Circumaortic Left Renal Vein
				19.3.2.2.2 Retroaortic Left Renal Vein
			19.3.2.3	 Infrarenal Segment
				19.3.2.3.1 Left-Sided IVC
				19.3.2.3.2 Double IVC
				19.3.2.3.3 Circumcaval Ureter
				19.3.2.3.4 Other Anomalies
				19.3.2.3.5 Complex Anomalies
	19.4	 Clinical Applications
		19.4.1	 Budd-Chiari Syndrome
			19.4.1.1	 Overview
			19.4.1.2	 CT Findings
			19.4.1.3	 CT Findings in the Acute Phase
			19.4.1.4	 CT Findings in the Chronic Phase
			19.4.1.5	 Differential Diagnosis
		19.4.2	 IVC Thrombosis
			19.4.2.1	 Overview
			19.4.2.2	 CTV Findings
		19.4.3	 IVC Branch Thromboses
			19.4.3.1	 Pelvic Vein
				19.4.3.1.1 Overview
				19.4.3.1.2 CT Findings
			19.4.3.2	 Gonadal Vein
				19.4.3.2.1 Overview
				19.4.3.2.2 CT Findings
		19.4.4	 Venous Compression Syndrome
			19.4.4.1	 “Nutcracker Syndrome”
			19.4.4.2	 Iliac Vein Compression Syndrome
				19.4.4.2.1 Overview
				19.4.4.2.2 CT Findings
				19.4.4.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
					Lower Limb Deep Venous Thrombosis
			19.4.4.3	 Right Ovarian Vein Syndrome
		19.4.5	 IVC Tumor
			19.4.5.1	 Leiomyosarcoma
				19.4.5.1.1 Overview
				19.4.5.1.2 CT Findings
				19.4.5.1.3 Differential Diagnosis
			19.4.5.2	 Intravenous Leiomyomatosis
				19.4.5.2.1 Overview
				19.4.5.2.2 CT Findings
				19.4.5.2.3 Differential Diagnosis
			19.4.5.3	 Sarcomatous Carcinoma
		19.4.6	 Others
	19.5	 Comparison of Imaging Technologies
	19.6	 New Advances in CT Angiography of the IVC
	Suggested Reading
20: Spinal CT Angiography
	20.1	 Examination Technology
		20.1.1	 Scan Protocols
			20.1.1.1	 Conventional CTA
			20.1.1.2	 Time-Resolved CTA
			20.1.1.3	 Intra-arterial CTA (IA-CTA)
		20.1.2	 Contrast Agent Administration Protocols
	20.2	 Image Postprocessing Technology
	20.3	 Anatomy of the Spinal Vascular System
		20.3.1	 Spinal Arteries
			20.3.1.1	 ASA
			20.3.1.2	 PSA
			20.3.1.3	 Radicular Arteries
		20.3.2	 Spinal Vein
	20.4	 Clinical Application
		20.4.1	 Adamkiewicz Arteriography
			20.4.1.1	 Overview
			20.4.1.2	 CTA Findings
			20.4.1.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		20.4.2	 Spinal Vascular Malformations
			20.4.2.1	 SDAVF
				20.4.2.1.1 Overview
				20.4.2.1.2 CTA Findings
			20.4.2.2	 PMAVFs
				20.4.2.2.1 Overview
				20.4.2.2.2 CTA Findings
			20.4.2.3	 Spinal Arteriovenous Malformations
				20.4.2.3.1 Overview
				20.4.2.3.2 CTA Findings
				20.4.2.3.3 Differential Diagnosis
					Differential Diagnosis Among SAVM, PMAVF, and SDAVF
					Differential Diagnosis Between Vascular Diseases (SAVM, PMAVF, SDAVF) and Nonvascular Diseases of the Spinal Cord
			20.4.2.4	 Spinal Cavernous Malformations
				20.4.2.4.1 Overview
				20.4.2.4.2 CTA Findings
				20.4.2.4.3 Differential Diagnosis
			20.4.2.5	 Cobb Syndrome
				20.4.2.5.1 Overview
				20.4.2.5.2 CTA Findings
				20.4.2.5.3 Differential Diagnosis
		20.4.3	 Spinal Aneurysm
			20.4.3.1	 Overview
			20.4.3.2	 CTA Findings
			20.4.3.3	 Differential Diagnosis
		20.4.4	 Cervical Spinal Cord Ischemia
			20.4.4.1	 Overview
			20.4.4.2	 CTA Findings
			20.4.4.3	 Differential Diagnosis
	20.5	 Comparison of Other Imaging Technologies
	20.6	 New Progress in Spinal Cord CT Angiography
	Suggested Reading
21: Pediatric CT Angiography
	21.1	 Examination Techniques
		21.1.1	 CT Scanning Technology
			21.1.1.1	 Data Acquisition Mode (Scan Mode)
			21.1.1.2	 Prospective ECG-Gated Technique
			21.1.1.3	 Retrospective ECG-Gated Technique
			21.1.1.4	 High-Pitch Scanning
			21.1.1.5	 Low Radiation Dose Scanning
		21.1.2	 Contrast Injection Technology
			21.1.2.1	 Method for Determining Delay Time
				21.1.2.1.1 Timing Bolus Method
				21.1.2.1.2 Bolus Tracking Method
				21.1.2.1.3 Manual Trigger Method
			21.1.2.2	 Techniques Associated with Contrast Injection
		21.1.3	 Other Related Issues
			21.1.3.1	 Sedation and Anesthesia
			21.1.3.2	 Use of Heart Rate-Lowering Drugs
			21.1.3.3	 Radiation Dose
	21.2	 Image Postprocessing Techniques
	21.3	 Cardiac Anatomy
	21.4	 Clinical Application
		21.4.1	 Coronary Artery Disease
			21.4.1.1	 Kawasaki Disease
				21.4.1.1.1 Overview
				21.4.1.1.2 CT Findings
			21.4.1.2	 Coronary Artery Anomalies
				21.4.1.2.1 Overview
				21.4.1.2.2 CT Findings
			21.4.1.3	 Anomalous Coronary Artery Originating from the Pulmonary Artery
				21.4.1.3.1 Overview
				21.4.1.3.2 CT Findings
			21.4.1.4	 Coronary Artery Fistula
				21.4.1.4.1 Overview
				21.4.1.4.2 CT Findings
		21.4.2	 CHD
			21.4.2.1	 Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)
				21.4.2.1.1 Overview
				21.4.2.1.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.2	 VSD
				21.4.2.2.1 Overview
				21.4.2.2.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.3	 PDA
				21.4.2.3.1 Overview
				21.4.2.3.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.4	 Aortopulmonary Septal Defect (APSD)
				21.4.2.4.1 Overview
				21.4.2.4.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.5	 Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF)
				21.4.2.5.1 Overview
				21.4.2.5.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.6	 Double Outlet of Right Ventricle (DORV)
				21.4.2.6.1 Overview
				21.4.2.6.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.7	 Transposition of the Great Arteries (TGA)
				21.4.2.7.1 Overview
				21.4.2.7.2 CT Findings
				21.4.2.7.3 CT Findings
			21.4.2.8	 Single Ventricle
				21.4.2.8.1 Overview
				21.4.2.8.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.9	 Persistent Truncus Arteriosus (PTA)
				21.4.2.9.1 Overview
				21.4.2.9.2 CT Findings
			21.4.2.10	 Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection (APVC)
				21.4.2.10.1 Overview
				21.4.2.10.2 CT Findings
		21.4.3	 Peripheral Vascular Diseases
			21.4.3.1	 Overview
			21.4.3.2	 CT Findings
	21.5	 Comparison of Imaging Techniques
	21.6	 New Advances in Pediatric CT Angiography
	Suggested Reading