White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants, Fifth Edition

WHITE’S HANDBOOK OF CHLORINATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 10
Preface......Page 30
Authors......Page 32
List of Contributors and Reviewers......Page 34
List of Abbreviations......Page 36
Acknowledgments......Page 42
Chlorine Gas......Page 44
History......Page 45
Electrolytic Processes......Page 46
The Ideal Electrochemical Cell......Page 47
Membrane Cell......Page 48
Diaphragm Cells......Page 51
Mercury Cells......Page 54
Process Diagram for a Typical Chlor-Alkali Plant......Page 58
HCl Oxidation Processes......Page 61
Historical Background......Page 63
Consequences of Impurities......Page 65
Nitrogen Trichloride in Liquid Chlorine......Page 66
Critical Properties......Page 67
Compressibility Coefficient......Page 68
Volume–Temperature Relationship......Page 69
Solubility of Chlorine Gas in Water......Page 70
Solubility of Liquid Chlorine in Water......Page 71
Chemical Reactions......Page 72
Toxic Effects......Page 73
First Aid......Page 74
Intentional Release......Page 75
Definitions......Page 76
Characteristics of a Major Liquid Chlorine Release......Page 77
Vapor Release......Page 78
Guillotine Break in a Pipeline: Ton Container Supply......Page 79
A Major Leak from PVC Header Failure......Page 81
Fusible Plug Failure from Corrosion......Page 82
USEPA Risk Management Programs (RMPs)......Page 84
OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) Regulations......Page 88
Worst-Case and Alternative Release Analyses......Page 89
Railroad Transportation......Page 90
Highway Transportation......Page 94
General......Page 95
A Fatal 1-Ton Container Leak......Page 96
A Leak from a Buried Chlorine Pipe......Page 97
A 14,000-lb Liquid Leak......Page 98
A Tank Car Leak at a Chlorine Packager......Page 100
Frequency and Magnitude of Chlorine Leaks......Page 102
End Uses of Chlorine......Page 105
Help in Chlorine Emergencies......Page 107
References......Page 108
Dissolution and Hydrolysis of Chlorine......Page 111
Effect of pH and Temperature......Page 117
Ionic Strength Effects......Page 120
Chlorine Speciation in Concentrated Solutions......Page 124
Hypochlorite Solutions......Page 125
Oxidation States of Chlorine......Page 128
Free, Combined, and Available Chlorine......Page 130
Chlorine and Nitrogenous Compounds......Page 134
Nitrogenous Compounds in Water and Wastewater......Page 135
Chlorination of Ammonia to Form Chloramines......Page 137
The Breakpoint Reaction......Page 146
The Organic Nitrogen Problem......Page 159
The Chemistry of Chlorine in Seawater......Page 165
Effect of Bromide......Page 166
Ionic Strength Effects......Page 169
Bromamine Formation and Decay......Page 170
Fundamental Considerations......Page 172
Practical Considerations......Page 176
ORP Measurements......Page 178
Practical Applications of ORP Measurements......Page 182
Reactions of Chlorine with Selected Constituents......Page 184
Alkalinity......Page 185
Carbon......Page 188
Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 189
Iron and Manganese......Page 190
Nitrite......Page 191
Chlorine Demand......Page 192
Germicidal Significance of Chlorine Residuals......Page 194
Mechanisms of Inactivation......Page 195
Hypochlorous Acid......Page 196
Hypochlorite Ion......Page 197
Chloramines......Page 198
References......Page 204
The Early Years......Page 217
Following Discovery of the Breakpoint Phenomenon......Page 218
General Considerations......Page 222
Common Interferences......Page 223
Organic Nitrogen Interference......Page 225
Recommendations for Method Selection......Page 227
Amperometric Titration......Page 230
The Single-Indicator-Electrode Titrator......Page 231
The Dual-Indicator-Electrode Titrator......Page 234
Operating Characteristics......Page 236
Chemistry of the Amperometric Method......Page 237
Preparation and Procedures for Titration......Page 238
Low-Level Amperometric Titrations......Page 243
Free Chlorine Residuals at Short Contact Times......Page 244
Determination of Residual Chlorine in Wastewater Effluents......Page 245
DPD Method......Page 251
DPD Colorimetric Method......Page 253
DPD-FAS Titrimetric Method......Page 254
FACTS (Syringaldazine) Method......Page 257
Iodometric Method I......Page 258
Iodometric Method II (Wastewater)......Page 260
Iodometric Electrode Method......Page 261
Leuco Crystal Violet (LCV) Method......Page 262
Methyl Orange (MO) Method......Page 263
Interfering Substances......Page 264
Drop Dilution Method......Page 265
References......Page 266
Groundwater......Page 273
Waterborne Diseases......Page 274
Use as a Biocide......Page 275
Use as a Virucide......Page 278
SWTR......Page 279
Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR)......Page 281
Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR)......Page 282
Disinfection of Drinking Water with Clorine......Page 283
Historical Background......Page 284
Points of Application......Page 285
Trihalomethanes (THMs)......Page 286
Total Organic Halides (TOX)......Page 287
Chlorine Demand......Page 288
Chlorination-Dechlorination......Page 290
Historical Background......Page 291
The Ammonia-Chlorine Process......Page 293
Operation of the Chloramination Process......Page 294
Issues of Concern......Page 296
Distribution System......Page 305
Regrowth......Page 307
Explanation of Terms Involving Regrowth......Page 309
Factors Influencing Microbial Growth......Page 312
Operation of the Distribution System......Page 314
Monitoring......Page 315
Control of Water Age......Page 317
Secondary Disinfectant Residuals......Page 318
Flushing......Page 320
Typical Disinfection Chemicals......Page 321
Disinfectant Feed Systems......Page 322
Disinfection of Water Mains......Page 323
Procedure for Disinfecting Water Treatment Plants......Page 324
Disinfection of New Buildings......Page 325
Procedure for Disinfection of Wells......Page 326
Procedures for Maintaining Disinfection while Inspecting In-Service Water Storage Facilities......Page 327
Tastes and Odors......Page 328
Tastes and Odors from Algae and Actinomycetes......Page 329
Synthetic Sources of Tastes and Odors......Page 331
Iron and Manganese......Page 332
Oxidation of Iron......Page 334
Oxidation of Manganese......Page 335
Filtration Aid......Page 336
Control of Mollusca in Seawater......Page 338
Zebra Mussels......Page 339
Quagga Mussels......Page 340
Hydrogen Sulfide Control......Page 342
Desalination......Page 346
Restoration of Wells......Page 347
Chlorination in the United Kingdom......Page 349
Disinfection of Coagulated Surface Water......Page 353
Acknowledgments......Page 354
References......Page 355
History......Page 369
Chlorine Chemistry in Wastewater......Page 370
Odor Control......Page 372
Prechlorination of Wastewater......Page 373
Scrubbing of Foul Air......Page 376
Trickling Filters......Page 381
BOD Reduction......Page 382
Control of Sludge Bulking......Page 383
Septicity Control......Page 388
Removal of Oils and Grease......Page 391
Removal of Ammonia......Page 392
Free and Combined Cyanides......Page 395
Phenols......Page 402
Textile Wastes......Page 403
References......Page 404
History......Page 406
The Coliform Standard......Page 407
Viruses......Page 411
Virus Inactivation......Page 413
Methods of Wastewater Disinfection......Page 419
Reactions with Wastewater Constituents......Page 422
Chlorine Dose and Effluent Quality......Page 425
Chlorination of Nitrified Effluents......Page 427
Formation of DBPs......Page 433
Regrowth of Organisms......Page 437
Toxicity of Chlorine Residuals......Page 438
Need for Dechlorination......Page 439
Wastewater Reuse......Page 440
References......Page 443
Introduction......Page 447
Dispersion of Chlorine......Page 448
Mixing Technologies......Page 449
Chlorine Contact Chamber Sizing......Page 454
Reuse Water......Page 456
Potable Water......Page 457
Wet Weather Disinfection for Wastewater......Page 459
References......Page 460
8 Chlorine Feed Systems......Page 461
Cylinders......Page 463
Ton Containers......Page 467
Tank Trucks/Tank Cars......Page 470
Storage Tanks......Page 473
Vaporizers......Page 474
Pressure-Reducing Valve......Page 479
Gas Filter......Page 480
Gas Chlorine Feed......Page 481
Chlorine Feeders and Eductors......Page 485
Chlorine Diffusers......Page 487
Pipe and Valve Systems......Page 488
Chlorine Scrubbers......Page 493
Reference......Page 494
Background and History of Hypochlorites......Page 495
Sodium Hypochlorite......Page 497
Concentration Properties, Feed Calculations, Codes, and Hazards......Page 498
Degradation......Page 506
Estimating the Degradation Rate......Page 508
Concentration Effects......Page 509
Temperature Effects......Page 511
pH Effects......Page 512
UV Light Effects......Page 513
Impurities......Page 514
Settled Particulates......Page 516
Sodium Carbonate......Page 517
Scaling......Page 518
Recommendations......Page 519
Tank Selection......Page 520
Lined Steel......Page 522
FRP......Page 523
HDPE......Page 524
Level Instrumentation......Page 526
Truck Unloading......Page 527
Underground Storage Tank (UST)......Page 528
Diaphragm Metering Pumps......Page 529
Problems with Vapor Locking......Page 533
Peristaltic Pumps......Page 536
Liquid Dosing Systems......Page 541
Sodium Hypochlorite Piping......Page 542
Thermoplastic Piping (PVC and CPVC)......Page 544
Lined Steel......Page 546
Titanium......Page 547
PVDF......Page 548
Gaskets, Seals, and O-Rings......Page 549
Sodium Hypochlorite Valves......Page 550
Ball Valves......Page 551
Diaphragm Valves......Page 553
Elevation Differences......Page 556
Tank and Pump Bases......Page 558
Access and Clearances......Page 560
History......Page 561
Manufacturing Process......Page 563
Disinfection......Page 564
Solubility......Page 565
Tablet and Briquette Systems......Page 566
Applicable Standards......Page 567
Lithium Hypochlorite......Page 568
References......Page 569
The Beginning......Page 571
Current Interest......Page 572
Impact of Salt Quality and Bromate Formation......Page 573
Electrolytic Formation of Sodium Hypochlorite......Page 574
Process Overview......Page 575
Water Softener......Page 577
Brine Saturator Tank......Page 580
Soft-Water Heater......Page 582
Soft-Water Chiller......Page 583
Electrolytic Cell......Page 585
Brine Dilution......Page 588
Hydrogen Formation, Separation, and Safety......Page 589
Hydrogen Dilution Blowers......Page 596
Sodium Hypochlorite Feed Equipment......Page 599
Equipment Sizing......Page 600
System Redundancy......Page 601
System Layout......Page 602
ClorTec......Page 608
Klorigen......Page 609
OSEC......Page 610
Process Solutions, Inc. (PSI)......Page 611
References......Page 614
History......Page 615
Significance of Chlorine Species......Page 619
Chemical Properties......Page 620
Dechlorination Chemistry......Page 622
Contactor Design......Page 623
Chemical Properties......Page 624
Contactor Design......Page 625
Other Dechlorination Chemicals......Page 626
Dechlorination Facility Design......Page 628
Design of Gaseous System Sulfur Dioxide......Page 629
Sulfur Dioxide Leak Detectors......Page 632
Liquid System Design for Sulfites......Page 635
References......Page 636
Introduction......Page 637
Background......Page 639
Amperometry......Page 641
Polarography......Page 642
Potentiometry......Page 643
ORP......Page 645
Colorimetry......Page 649
Online Analyzers for Chlorination......Page 650
Analytical Technology, Inc.......Page 651
Hach......Page 654
Capital Controls......Page 657
GLI International......Page 662
Orion Research, Inc.......Page 663
Wallace & Tiernan......Page 664
Stranco Products......Page 665
Field Comparison of Analyzers......Page 672
How to Select an Online Analyzer......Page 674
Online Process Control Overview......Page 676
Chlorination Process Control......Page 680
Manual Control......Page 681
Flow Pacing......Page 684
Feedback Control......Page 687
Compound Loop Control......Page 690
Dechlorination......Page 696
Compound Loop Control......Page 697
Zero Residual Control......Page 698
Stranco HRR......Page 700
Wallace & Tiernan......Page 701
Capital Controls......Page 705
Blending Chemistry with Process Control......Page 706
Control System O&M......Page 713
Record Keeping and Regulatory Issues......Page 716
References......Page 719
General......Page 721
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)......Page 722
Maintenance Plan......Page 723
Residual Analyzer Maintenance and Calibration of Residual Analyzer......Page 724
Operation......Page 725
Chlorine Gas System Maintenance......Page 727
Chlorine Detection Systems and Emergency Scrubber......Page 729
Sodium Hypochlorite System Operation......Page 730
Sodium Hypochlorite System Maintenance......Page 732
Sulfonator Operation......Page 733
Sulfonator Maintenance......Page 734
Operation of Liquid Dechlorination Systems......Page 735
Small (100- and 150-lb) Gas Cylinders......Page 736
Ton Containers......Page 737
Rail Cars......Page 738
Liquid Chemical Storage......Page 739
Risk Management Plan......Page 740
SDWA and State Testing and Reporting Requirements......Page 741
Wastewater Chlorine Use Reporting Requirements for Wastewater Facilities......Page 742
Historical Background......Page 743
European Practice......Page 744
Other Uses......Page 745
Chemical Properties......Page 746
Chemistry in Potable Water Treatment......Page 747
Germicidal Efficiency......Page 748
Inactivation of Viruses and Bacteria......Page 749
Encysted Parasites......Page 754
Equipment and Generation......Page 755
Commercial Generation Methods and Chemistry......Page 756
Acid–Chlorite Solution......Page 757
Chlorine Solution–Chlorite Solution......Page 760
Three-Chemical Systems (D. A. Gates, pers. comm.)......Page 761
Chlorine Gas–Chlorite Solution......Page 762
Electrochemical......Page 763
Chemical Feed Design Considerations......Page 765
Purity Specification......Page 766
Potassium Persulfate–Chlorite Solution......Page 767
Sodium Hypochlorite–Hydrochloric Acid–Chlorite Solution......Page 768
Chlorine Gas–Solid Chlorite......Page 769
Drinking Water Primary Disinfection Application Points......Page 770
Exposure to Sunlight......Page 771
Chlorite......Page 772
Chlorate......Page 774
Objectionable Taste and Odor Formation......Page 777
Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO)......Page 778
Food Processing......Page 779
Other Pathogens......Page 780
Taste and Odor Control......Page 781
Iron and Manganese Oxidation......Page 782
Analytic Methods for Chlorine Dioxide and its Oxychlorine By-Products......Page 783
Iodometry......Page 785
Standard Methods 4500-ClO(2)-C, Amperometric Method I......Page 786
Amperometric Titration Equivalence Point......Page 787
DPD Method......Page 790
LGB......Page 791
Spectrophotometry......Page 792
Flow Injection Analysis (FIA)......Page 793
Other Colorimetric Methods for Chlorine Dioxide Analysis......Page 794
Sodium Chlorite......Page 795
Workplace Monitoring......Page 796
Chlorine Dioxide Residual Limits......Page 797
Summary......Page 798
Acknowledgments......Page 799
References......Page 800
History and Application......Page 810
Solubility of Ozone......Page 811
Ozone Reaction Pathways......Page 812
Ozone Demand......Page 814
Dissolved Ozone Decay......Page 815
Iron and Manganese......Page 816
Sulfides......Page 818
Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide, and Monochloramine......Page 819
Taste- and Odor-Causing Compounds......Page 820
Control of Chlorination By-Products......Page 822
Biological Filtration......Page 823
Removal of Particulates......Page 824
Increase in UV Transmittance at 254 nm (UVT(254))......Page 825
SOCs......Page 826
EDC and PPCP Treatment......Page 827
Cyanotoxins......Page 828
Treatment of Biological Solids in Wastewater......Page 829
Use in Drinking Water......Page 830
Use in Wastewater......Page 833
Ozone DBPs......Page 835
Bromate Control......Page 836
Use in Water and Wastewater Treatment......Page 838
Potable Water Installations......Page 839
Wastewater Installations......Page 840
Equipment and Generation......Page 841
Theory of O(3) Generation......Page 842
Gas Source......Page 843
Generation......Page 855
Transfer......Page 859
Contactors......Page 864
Destruction Equipment......Page 869
Ancillary Equipment......Page 872
Cost Studies......Page 874
Gas Flow......Page 875
Ozone Transfer Efficiency......Page 877
Specific Energy......Page 878
Analytical Methods......Page 879
Ozone Concentration in Gas......Page 880
Measuring Dissolved Ozone Residual in Water......Page 882
Health and Safety......Page 885
Regulatory Issues......Page 886
References......Page 887
Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 891
Bromine Production......Page 892
Chemistry of Bromine in Water and Wastewater Treatment......Page 894
Potable Water......Page 895
Wastewater......Page 896
Br(2) Facility Design......Page 897
System Description......Page 898
Comparison with Other Methods......Page 900
Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 901
Preparation of Bromine Chloride......Page 902
Chemistry of Bromine Chloride in Water......Page 903
Design of Bromine Chloride Facilities......Page 904
Comparison with Advantages of Other Methods......Page 908
Chemistry of BCDMH in Water and Wastewater......Page 909
Comparison with Chlorination......Page 910
Germicidal Efficiency (Br(2) and BrCl)......Page 912
Bromo-Organic Compounds......Page 914
Measurement of Bromine Residuals......Page 915
DPD Differentiation Method......Page 916
Health and Safety Aspects of Bromine Compounds......Page 917
Physical and Chemical Characteristics......Page 918
Production from Chile Saltpeter......Page 919
Applications......Page 920
Uses in Water Treatment......Page 921
Chemistry of Iodination......Page 922
Germicidal Efficiency......Page 925
Limitations of Iodination......Page 926
Iodination Facility......Page 927
Health and Safety Aspects of Iodine......Page 929
Bromine......Page 930
BCDMH......Page 931
References......Page 932
Wastewater Applications in Europe......Page 936
UV Applications in North America......Page 937
Drinking Water Applications in the United States......Page 939
UV Light......Page 940
Microbial Inactivation Mechanisms......Page 941
Microbial Repair......Page 942
UV Dose......Page 945
USEPA\'s Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidance Manual......Page 947
NWRI/AwwaRF\'s Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines for Drinking Water and Water Reuse......Page 950
USEPA\'s Design Manual for Municipal Wastewater Disinfection......Page 951
UV Lamps......Page 953
UV Reactors......Page 964
Ballasts......Page 967
Lamp Sleeves......Page 968
UV Sensors......Page 969
Cleaning Systems......Page 970
Temperature Sensors/Water Level Probes......Page 971
Particles/Suspended Solids......Page 972
Fouling......Page 974
UV System Validation......Page 975
Nonbiological, Mathematical-Based Modeling......Page 998
Emerging Methods......Page 1002
Maintenance Activities......Page 1004
Operational Issues......Page 1007
Electrical System Modifications......Page 1008
General......Page 1009
UV Light Exposure......Page 1010
Acute Health Effects of UV Exposure......Page 1011
Personal Protection......Page 1012
References......Page 1013
Historical Perspective......Page 1019
Chemistry of AOPs......Page 1020
Ozone Decomposition Initiated by Hydroxide......Page 1021
H(2)O(2)/UV......Page 1022
Fe(II)/H(2)O(2)/UV (Photo-Fenton Reaction)......Page 1023
TiO(2)/H(2)O(2)/UV......Page 1024
Oxidation of VOCs......Page 1025
Oxidation of Pesticides......Page 1028
Oxidation of Taste and Odor Compounds......Page 1031
Oxidation of Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Precursors......Page 1032
O(3)/H(2)O(2)......Page 1033
O(3)/UV......Page 1034
Fenton and Photo-Fenton Reactions......Page 1035
TiO(2)/UV......Page 1036
Regulations......Page 1037
Equipment and Generation......Page 1038
References......Page 1040
Appendix......Page 1046
Index......Page 1052