Wetland indicators : a guide to wetland identification, delineation, classification, and mapping

Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Author......Page 7
Acknowledgments......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
Dedication......Page 16
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 17
Introduction......Page 18
Recent Scientific Definitions......Page 20
1970s to Present Fish and Wildlife Service Wetland Definition......Page 21
National Research Council Definition......Page 23
Canadian National Definition......Page 24
Australian Wetland Definition......Page 25
Federal Clean Water Act Definition......Page 26
Food Security Act Definition......Page 27
Selected State Definitions......Page 28
Field Application of Wetland Definitions......Page 30
References......Page 31
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 33
Introduction......Page 34
How Wet is a Wetland?......Page 35
Flooding or Waterlogging Duration......Page 36
Timing of Wetness......Page 37
Federal Regulatory Definition of Growing Season......Page 38
Shortcomings of the Regulatory Concept......Page 39
Botanical Evidence......Page 41
Faunal Evidence......Page 45
Concluding Remarks......Page 46
Are All Wetlands At Least Periodically Anaerobic, Reduced Environments?......Page 47
What are Common Types of Wetland Hydrology?......Page 48
Are Wetlands Ecotones?......Page 51
Ecotonal Wetlands......Page 52
Non-ecotonal Wetlands......Page 54
Do Wetlands Really Become Dryland?......Page 56
Are Some Wetlands Ephemeral Cyclical Features on the Landscape?......Page 59
References......Page 60
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 67
Environmental Changes Due to Flooding and Waterlogging......Page 68
Plant Adaptations to Flooding and Waterlogging......Page 70
Morphological Adaptations......Page 72
Hypertrophied Stems......Page 73
Fluted Trunks......Page 74
Hollow Stems......Page 75
Shallow Root Systems......Page 76
Adventitious Roots......Page 77
Aerenchyma......Page 79
Hypertrophied Lenticels......Page 82
Oxidized Rhizospheres......Page 83
Life-form or Habit Changes......Page 84
Germination and Seedling Survival......Page 85
Wetland Plants ? Hydrophytes......Page 86
Evolving Concept of a Hydrophyte......Page 87
Wetland Ecotypes......Page 88
Wetland Plant Lists......Page 93
Problems Interpreting FAC? and FACU Species As Hydrophytes......Page 95
Human Effects on Wetland Plant Distribution......Page 97
Plants as Indicators of Water Sources......Page 98
Plants as Water Chemistry Indicators......Page 100
Plants as Soil Type Indicators......Page 103
Useful Guides for Identifying Wetland Plants......Page 104
Southwest......Page 105
References......Page 106
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 117
Introduction......Page 118
Stand Identification......Page 119
Sampling Strata......Page 120
Areal Cover......Page 121
Basal Area......Page 123
Frequency......Page 127
Weighted Averages......Page 128
Sample and Plot Sizes......Page 131
Number of Plots......Page 133
Shape of Plots......Page 134
Point Intercept Sampling......Page 135
Other Sampling Methods......Page 136
Exercises in Determining the Presence of Hydrophytic Vegetation......Page 139
References......Page 141
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 144
Introduction......Page 145
Soil Definition......Page 146
Soil Composition......Page 147
Soil Color......Page 148
Waterlogging Effects on Soil Properties......Page 151
Other Effects of Flooding on Soil Development......Page 156
Factors Affecting the Color of Soil......Page 157
Wetland Soils......Page 158
The Evolving Hydric Soil Definition and Technical Criteria......Page 159
General Concept of Hydric Soils......Page 164
Lists of Hydric Soils and Hydric Soil Map Units......Page 166
Organic Soils......Page 167
Mineral Hydric Soils......Page 169
Lists of U.S. Hydric Soil Indicators......Page 170
Organic Soils......Page 178
Histic Materials in Mineral Soils......Page 183
Gleyed Matrix......Page 186
Depleted Matrix......Page 187
Depressional Indicators......Page 188
Indicators of Flooded or Ponded Soils......Page 189
Internationally Recognized Hydric Soil Properties......Page 192
Measuring Reduction or Soil Redox Potential......Page 193
Interpreting Soil Taxonomy to Identify Potential Hydric Soils......Page 194
References......Page 196
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 204
Introduction......Page 205
Evolution and Use of Wetland Identification and Delineation Methods......Page 206
Differing Wetland Identification and Boundary Delineation Protocols......Page 209
Corps Manual......Page 210
EPA Manual......Page 212
Food Security Act Manual......Page 213
Federal Interagency Manual......Page 214
Primary Indicators Method......Page 216
Florida Manual......Page 218
Massachusetts Manual......Page 220
New York Manual......Page 221
Wisconsin Method......Page 222
Corps Manual......Page 223
EPA Manual......Page 226
Federal Interagency Manual......Page 227
National Research Council Findings and Recommendations......Page 232
Preparation for the Field......Page 233
Field Tips......Page 234
References......Page 236
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 239
Introduction......Page 240
Wetlands Dominated by Often Dry-Site Species......Page 241
Seasonally Variable Wetland Plant Communities......Page 244
Cyclical Wetlands in Arid to Subhumid Regions......Page 245
Tropical Wetlands......Page 248
Problematic Soils......Page 249
Sandy Hydric Entisols......Page 250
Nonsandy Hydric Entisols......Page 252
Hydric Spodosols......Page 253
Hydric Mollisols......Page 254
Hydric Vertisols......Page 255
Wet Aridisols......Page 256
Saturated Soils Not Forming Hydric Properties......Page 257
Dark-Colored Parent Material Soils......Page 258
Newly Formed Soils......Page 259
Anthraquic Soils......Page 260
Relict Hydric Soils......Page 261
Drained Hydric Soils Partly Drained Wetlands......Page 262
Farmed Wetlands......Page 265
Groundwater-Driven Wetlands......Page 266
Western Riparian Habitat......Page 267
Complex Landscapes......Page 268
Other Recommendations......Page 269
References......Page 270
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 276
Introduction......Page 277
Vegetation......Page 279
Water Chemistry......Page 280
Wetland Size......Page 282
Early Ecological Classifications......Page 283
Wetland Classification in the U.S.......Page 284
1950s to 1960s Fish and Wildlife Service Classification......Page 285
Current Fish and Wildlife Service’s Wetland Classification System......Page 287
Hydrogeomorphic HGM Classification......Page 292
FWS/HGM-Type Classification Systems......Page 294
Wetland Classification in Canada......Page 296
Ramsar: A Multinational Classification......Page 299
Peatland Classifications......Page 300
Australia......Page 302
Western Australia......Page 304
References......Page 305
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 310
Wetland Distribution......Page 311
Palustrine Wetlands......Page 314
Emergent Wetlands......Page 316
Scrub-Shrub Wetlands......Page 321
Forested Wetlands......Page 323
Estuarine Emergent Wetlands......Page 326
Estuarine Scrub-Shrub Wetlands......Page 328
Estuarine Intertidal Shores......Page 329
References......Page 352
Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping......Page 366
Maps To Aid in Wetland Identification......Page 367
Map Limitations......Page 368
Mapping Procedure......Page 370
Features Mapped......Page 371
NWI Map Strengths and Weaknesses......Page 375
Uses of NWI Maps......Page 376
County Soil Surveys......Page 378
Features Mapped......Page 379
Soil Survey Strengths and Weaknesses......Page 381
Comparing NWI Maps with Soil Survey Maps......Page 382
Future Maps......Page 385
Photointerpretation Concerns......Page 386
Interpreting Estuarine Wetlands......Page 389
Interpreting Palustrine Wetlands......Page 391
Interpreting Submerged Aquatic Vegetation......Page 395
References......Page 396