Waterborne Pathogens: Detection and Treatment

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Waterborne Pathogens: Detection and Treatment
Copyright
Contributors
About the editors
	Professional experience
	Academic honors
	Visiting assignments in various universities—widely traveled
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 - Emerging waterborne pathogens in the context of climate change: Vibrio cholerae as a case study
	1. Introduction
	2. Vibrio cholerae and its environmental reservoir
	3. Attachment
	4. Viability of the bacterium through the interepidemic period
	5. Cyanobacterial reservoir and the seasonality of cholera: the Bangladesh model
	6. Transmission of cholera during epidemics
	7. Impact of climate on cholera
	8. Conclusion
	References
2 -  Ubiquitous waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Waterborne pathogens
		2.1 Waterborne bacteria
			2.1.1 The genus Vibrio
			2.1.2 The genus Salmonella
			2.1.3 The genus Shigella
			2.1.4 The genus Escherichia
			2.1.5 The genus Burkholderia
			2.1.6 The genus Campylobacter
			2.1.7 The genus Francisella
			2.1.8 The genus Legionella
			2.1.9 Mycobacterium avium complex
		2.2 Waterborne viruses
			2.2.1 Adenoviruses
			2.2.2 Astroviruses
			2.2.3 Caliciviruses
			2.2.4 Noroviruses
			2.2.5 Sapoviruses
			2.2.6 Enteroviruses
			2.2.7 Hepatovirus A
			2.2.8 Hepatovirus E
			2.2.9 Rotaviruses
		2.3 Waterborne protozoa
			2.3.1 The genus Cryptosporidium
			2.3.2 The genus Giardia
			2.3.3 Entamoeba histolytica
		2.4 Waterborne helminths
			2.4.1 The genus Dracunculus
			2.4.2 The genus Fasciola
	3. Potential waterborne pathogens
		3.1 Potential waterborne bacteria
			3.1.1 Helicobacter pylori
			3.1.2 Aeromonas hydrophila
			3.1.3 The genus Leptospira
			3.1.4 The genus Tsukamurella
			3.1.5 The genus Bacillus
			3.1.6 Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins
		3.2 Potential waterborne viruses
		3.3 Potential waterborne protozoa
			3.3.1 Microsporidia
			3.3.2 Cystoisospora belli
			3.3.3 Cyclospora cayetanensis
		3.4 Potential waterborne helminths
			3.4.1 The genus Schistosoma
	4. Summary
	Acknowledgment
	References
3 - Waterborne pathogens: review of outbreaks in developing nations
	1. Introduction
	2. Waterborne pathogen outbreaks in developing countries
	3. WASH and waterborne disease outbreaks
	4. Water quality: contribution to disease
	5. Groundwater quality
	6. Intervention efforts
	7. Conclusion
	References
4 - Treatment of waterborne pathogens by reverse osmosis
	1. Treatment of waterborne pathogens by reverse osmosis
		1.1 Types of waterborne pathogens
		1.2 Pathogen control in drinking water
		1.3 Reverse osmosis
			1.3.1 Basic terms and definition
				1.3.1.1 Basic requirements for membrane materials
				1.3.1.2 Pretreatment
				1.3.1.3 Configuration of the reverse osmosis process
				1.3.1.4 Membrane
				1.3.1.5 Materials used for membrane
		1.4 Removals of waterborne by reverse osmosis
	2. Conclusion
	References
5 - Treatment of waterborne pathogens by microfiltration
	1. Treatment of waterborne pathogens by microfiltration
		1.1 Overview of waterborne pathogens
		1.2 Microfiltration versus conventional filtration
			1.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of conventional filtration for waterborne pathogens removal
		1.3 Microfiltration
			1.3.1 Mass transport in the microfiltration process
		1.4 Waterborne pathogens removal by microfiltration
	2. Summary and conclusions
	References
6 - Filtration and chemical treatment of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Waterborne pathogens and types of diseases
	3. Source and transmission of waterborne pathogens
	4. Filtration and chemical treatment
		4.1 Filtration methods for treatment of pathogens
			4.1.1 Household and small-scale water treatment
			4.1.2 Drinking water treatment in plants/industries
			4.1.3 Wastewater treatment in plant/industries
		4.2 Chemical methods for treatment of pathogens
			4.2.1 Chemical pretreatment
			4.2.2 Chemical coagulation
			4.2.3 Chemical disinfection
	5. Conclusions and future scope
	References
7 - Biofiltration technique for removal of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Waterborne disease
		2.1 Log removal
		2.2 Turbidity
	3. Biofiltration
		3.1 Trickling filter
		3.2 Slow sand filtration
		3.3 Rapid sand filter
		3.4 Stormwater biofilter
			3.4.1 Submerged zone
			3.4.2 Removal of pathogenic bacteria in stormwater biofilter
		3.5 Biofilter design consideration for removal of microbial contaminants
			3.5.1 Filter media
			3.5.2 Amendments of filter media
			3.5.3 Surface modification of filter media
			3.5.4 Biofilm
			3.5.5 Infauna
			3.5.6 Vegetation
		3.6 Microbial-earthworm ecofilters
	4. Conclusion
	References
8 - Thermal methods, ultraviolet radiation, and ultrasonic waves for the treatment of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Thermal methods
	3. The application of ultraviolet radiation
		3.1 Basis of the process
		3.2 The intensity of radiation and its dose
		3.3 The required ultraviolet dose
		3.4 Ultraviolet reactors
	4. The application of solar disinfection
		4.1 The basis of the process
		4.2 Inactivation of microbes
		4.3 The factors affecting the effectiveness of the process
		4.4 Technological solutions
	5. The application of ultrasonic waves
	6. Summary
	References
9 - Heat, solar pasteurization, and ultraviolet radiation treatment for removal of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Heat treatment
		2.1 Critical temperature and efficacy of boiling
		2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
		2.3 Combination with other techniques
	3. Solar pasteurization
		3.1 Batch system
		3.2 Continuous flow-through system
	4. Ultraviolet radiation
		4.1 Electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet light and microbial inactivation
		4.2 Ultraviolet disinfection instrument
			4.2.1 Mercury-based ultraviolet lamps
			4.2.2 Mercury-free ultraviolet lamps
		4.3 Factors affecting ultraviolet disinfection
		4.4 Advantages and disadvantages
	5. Future scope
	6. Conclusion
	References
10 - Bioaugmentation for the treatment of waterborne pathogen contamination water
	1. Introduction
	2. Biological control of Legionella pneumophila—a most tracked waterborne pathogens in man-made water systems
		2.1 Selection of anti-Legionella compounds producers
		2.2 Biological molecules showing anti-Legionella activity
	3. Antagonistic microbial strains as biological pesticides for lethal pathogenic microbes
		3.1 Microbial consortium for optimum pollutant and pathogen removal
	4. Bacteriophage for pathogen reduction in wastewater
		4.1 Role of phage to control waterborne bacterial pathogens
		4.2 Phage in wastewater treatment
	5. Pathogen bacteria removal in constructed wetlands
		5.1 Selection of antagonistic bacteria for removal of waterborne pathogens
	6. Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
11 - Chemical treatment for removal of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Regulated chemicals
	3. Water treatment plants and its significance
		3.1 The disinfection of drinking water
		3.2 General overview of the water treatment
	4. Raw water quality and disinfectant demand
	5. Microbiological deliberation for disinfection and indicator organism
	6. Conventional method of treatment
		6.1 Physical and chemical treatments
		6.2 Particulates aggregates and residuals
		6.3 Chlorine
		6.4 Effectiveness of chlorination on protozoa, bacteria, and virus and residues
		6.5 Chloramine-based disinfection
		6.6 Effectiveness and by-product of chloramine
		6.7 Chlorine dioxide and effectiveness
		6.8 Ozone
		6.9 Ultraviolet disinfection
		6.10 Human health and ecological effect
	7. Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
12 - Molecular tools for the detection of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Commonly encountered pathogens in water
		2.1 Bacteria
		2.2 Protozoa
		2.3 Virus
	3. Major types of detection platforms for the detection of waterborne pathogens
		3.1 Luminescent molecular markers
		3.2 Polymerase chain reaction–based molecular tools
		3.3 Electrochemical sensors
		3.4 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
		3.5 Magnetic biosensors
		3.6 Designer “lab-on-a-chip” biosensor
		3.7 Smartphone-based rapid monitoring system
	4. Sensors and molecular tools in waterborne pathogens detection: where do we stand today?
		4.1 Benefits
		4.2 Limitations
		4.3 Future prospects
	5. Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
13 - Biosensors/molecular tools for detection of waterborne pathogens
	1. Biosensors
		1.1 Types of biosensors
			1.1.1 Optical biosensors
				1.1.1.1 Surface plasmon resonance biosensors
				1.1.1.2 Evanescent field–based fiber optic biosensors
				1.1.1.3 Fluorescence and chemiluminescence biosensors
				1.1.1.4 Colorimetric biosensors
			1.1.2 Piezoelectric biosensors (acoustic wave–based biosensors/mass sensitive detectors)
			1.1.3 Electrochemical biosensors
	2. Molecular methods
		2.1 Different molecular methods of pathogen detection
			2.1.1 Polymerase chain reaction and variants
				2.1.1.1 Multiplex PCR and real-time PCR
			2.1.2 Oligonucleotide DNA microarrays
			2.1.3 Next-generation sequencing
			2.1.4 Pyrosequencing
			2.1.5 Fluorescence in situ hybridization
			2.1.6 Immunology-based methods
	3. Conclusion
	References
14 - Drug and multidrug resistance in waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Bacteria with drug resistance and multiresistance represented in water environments
	3. Drug resistance mechanism and genes involved in resistance and multiresistance
	4. Factors driving of resistance
	5. Tools for resistance and multiresistance determination
	6. Emergence of bacteria resistant to antibiotics in aquatic environments
	7. Summary and conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Further reading
15 - Sorption as effective and economical method of waterborne pathogens removal
	1. Sorption
		1.1 Sorption process used in the waters treatment
		1.2 Sorbents
		1.3 Pathogens
	References
16 - Methods used in situ for removal of waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Biological contaminants of water
	3. Methods of removing waterborne pathogens
		3.1 Self-purification processes in water
		3.2 Biosurfactants
		3.3 Photosensitizers
		3.4 Filtration
	4. Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
17 - Effective control of waterborne pathogens by aquatic plants
	1. Introduction
	2. Removal of pathogens by aquatic plants
	3. Role of wetlands in treating pathogen-contaminated wastewater
	4. Conclusion and future studies
	References
	Further reading
18 - Nanoconjugates for detection of waterborne bacterial pathogens
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Indicators of microbial water quality
	2. Major waterborne pathogens and their impact on humans
	3. Waterborne bacterial pathogens
	4. Conventional waterborne bacteria detection methodologies
	5. Search for solution: nanoconjugates for detection of waterborne bacterial pathogens
		5.1 Gold nanoparticles conjugated detection system
		5.2 Colorimetric detection of active biomolecule–conjugated AuNPs
		5.3 Silver nanoparticle conjugated detection system
		5.4 Aptamers
		5.5 Graphene oxide
		5.6 Metal–organic frameworks
	6. Conclusion: preparing for tomorrow, today
	References
19 - Nanomaterials for removal of waterborne pathogens: opportunities and challenges
	1. Introduction
	2. Nanomaterials
		2.1 Characteristics of nanoparticle
		2.2 Types
			2.2.1 Naturally occurring nanomaterials
			2.2.2 Metals and their oxide-based nanomaterials
			2.2.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials
			2.2.4 Newly structured and engineered nanomaterials
		2.3 Application in contaminated water treatment
	3. Mechanism of cytotoxicity of nanomaterials
		3.1 Naturally occurring nanomaterials
		3.2 Metals and their oxide-based nanomaterials
		3.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials
		3.4 Newly structured and engineered nanomaterials
	4. Applications of nanomaterials in waterborne pathogens treatment
		4.1 Magnetic nanoparticles
		4.2 Nanostructured membranes
		4.3 Bioactive nanoparticles
		4.4 Dendrimer-enhanced ultrafiltration
		4.5 Photocatalytic inactivation by nanoparticles
		4.6 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers
		4.7 Bioinspired nanoparticles
		4.8 Nanofibers
		4.9 Nanosorbents
	5. Limitations and upcoming challenges
		5.1 Mode of application and side products of degradation
		5.2 Nanotoxicity and its effects
		5.3 Plausible solutions
	6. Summary
	Abbreviations
	References
	Further reading
20 - Applications of carbon nanotubes for controlling waterborne pathogens
	1. Introduction
	2. Antimicrobial activity of carbon nanotubes
		2.1 Biocidal effect of native carbon nanotubes
			2.1.1 Physiochemical property
			2.1.2 External factors
		2.2 Bactericidal effect of decorated carbon nanotubes
			2.2.1 Metal nanoparticles
			2.2.2 Antimicrobial agents
			2.2.3 Polymers
	3. Potential applications of carbon nanotubes for water disinfection
		3.1 Immobilized carbon nanotubes
			3.1.1 Membranes/filters
			3.1.2 Adsorbents
		3.2 Suspended carbon nanotubes
	4. Limitations and possible risks of the use of carbon nanotubes for waterborne pathogen control
		4.1 Toxicological and environmental concerns
		4.2 Economic consideration
	5. Conclusion
	References
21 - Nanofiltration technology for removal of pathogens present in drinking water
	1. Introduction
	2. Waterborne diseases
	3. Sources of pathogen contamination in drinking water
	4. Currently available techniques for pathogen removal
	5. Membrane-based technologies for pathogenic contaminant removal
		5.1 Microfiltration
		5.2 Ultrafiltration
		5.3 Reverse osmosis
	6. Nanofiltration technology for removal of pathogenic microbes
		6.1 Mechanism of separation by nanofiltration membranes
		6.2 Bacteria
		6.3 Virus
		6.4 Protozoa
	7. Advantages of nanofiltration technology over other virus elimination processes
		7.1 Specificity
		7.2 Expectedness of virus removal
		7.3 Process effectiveness and robustness
		7.4 Process elasticity and easiness
		7.5 Viral markers
		7.6 Toxicological assessment
	8. Future improvements in the technology
	9. Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
Index
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	Q
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