Water Resources Planning and Management

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 11
Foreword......Page 17
Preface......Page 19
Acknowledgements......Page 21
Introduction......Page 22
Part I Understanding ‘water’......Page 25
1.1 Background......Page 27
1.2 The global water cycle and its sensitivity to climate change......Page 28
1.2.1 Water vapour......Page 29
1.2.3 Precipitation......Page 30
1.2.4 Runoff and surface water storage......Page 32
1.2.6 Groundwater......Page 33
1.2.8 Extremes......Page 34
1.3.1 External forcing and its influence on the climate......Page 35
1.4.1 The changing atmospheric composition......Page 36
1.4.3 Land use change......Page 39
1.4.5 Water use......Page 40
1.5 Assessment methodologies of impacts of climate change on water resources......Page 41
1.6.1 The consequences of global water-cycle changes for surface and sub-surface hydrology......Page 42
1.6.3 Indirect approaches......Page 43
1.7 Summary......Page 44
References......Page 45
2 Understanding global hydrology......Page 47
2.1 The hydrological cycle......Page 48
2.2 Hydrology in different climates......Page 52
2.3 Drainage basins......Page 56
2.4 The role of vegetation......Page 60
2.5 Variability......Page 63
2.6 Exploitation of water resources......Page 65
2.7 Conclusion......Page 66
References......Page 67
3.2 Nature of interaction......Page 70
3.3.1 Analytical methods......Page 74
3.3.2 Water balance approaches......Page 76
3.3.3 Field methods and the use of tracers......Page 77
3.3.4 Numerical models......Page 78
3.3.5 Hydrological models......Page 80
3.4 Sustainable management......Page 83
References......Page 87
4.1.1 What determines the physical and chemical conditions in natural waters?......Page 92
4.2.1 Water as a medium......Page 94
4.2.2 Temperature......Page 95
4.2.3 Turbidity, suspended solids, and light penetration......Page 96
4.3 Conductivity, salinity, and total dissolved solids......Page 97
4.4 Alkalinity and pH......Page 98
4.5 Trace elements and heavy metals......Page 100
4.6 Nutrients and eutrophication......Page 101
4.7 Organic pollutants......Page 103
4.8 Water for domestic use......Page 105
4.9.1 The effects of industrial and mining activities on water quality......Page 106
4.10 Water for agricultural use......Page 107
4.10.1 The effects of agricultural water on water quality......Page 108
4.12 Water quality considerations in environmental water allocations......Page 109
4.13 Chemical monitoring vs bioassessment and ecotoxicology......Page 110
4.14 Water quality standards and guidelines......Page 111
References......Page 112
5.1 Introduction......Page 114
5.2 Global patterns of inland water ecosystems......Page 115
5.3.1 The flow regime......Page 116
5.3.2 Channel form, sediments and physical habitat......Page 118
5.3.5 Riverine biotas......Page 121
5.4.1 Lakes......Page 124
5.4.2 Wetlands and their biota......Page 126
5.5 Estuaries and coastal lakes......Page 127
5.6 Underground waters and their biota......Page 128
5.8 People and inland water ecosystems......Page 129
5.9 The vulnerability of inland water ecosystems......Page 131
5.11 Conclusion......Page 134
References......Page 135
6.2 Nature of biodiversity and links to freshwater ecosystem functioning......Page 141
6.3 Water and biodiversity, and their roles in ecosystems......Page 143
6.5 Aquatic ecosystems as a part of water management......Page 145
6.6 Reducing human impacts on freshwater systems......Page 146
6.8 The need for valuation of freshwater ecosystem functions and services......Page 148
6.9 Linking biodiversity and ecosystem values to human sustainability......Page 149
References......Page 151
Endnotes......Page 154
7.1.1 Accelerating requirements for water for food production......Page 155
7.1.2 Climate change implications......Page 156
7.1.3 Analysing food production from a green–blue water perspective......Page 157
7.2.1 Estimating water availability for food production on current agricultural land......Page 158
7.2.2 Emerging water shortages......Page 159
7.3 Options to meet food water deficits......Page 160
7.3.1 Potential for water productivity improvements and irrigation......Page 161
7.3.2 Food trade......Page 163
7.4.1 Intensification of water use on permanent pasture land......Page 164
7.4.2 Meeting the remaining unmet deficit in poor countries......Page 165
7.5.1 Summary......Page 168
7.5.2 The analysis......Page 170
7.5.3 General discussion......Page 171
References......Page 172
Part II Water resources planning and management......Page 177
8.1 Introduction......Page 179
8.2 Muddling along: the American experience......Page 180
8.3 A wrong turn: the Chilean free market experience......Page 184
8.4 Changing priorities: the South African experience......Page 185
8.5 In search of sustainability: the Australian experience......Page 188
8.6 Conclusion......Page 192
References......Page 193
Endnotes......Page 196
9.1 Introduction......Page 199
9.2 The global water challenge......Page 200
9.3 Responding with the rule of law: international peace and security......Page 202
9.4 Origins and evolution of international water law......Page 204
9.5.1 Scope......Page 205
Selected state practice on scope......Page 207
9.5.2 Substantive rules......Page 210
Selected state practice on substantive rules......Page 211
9.5.3 Procedural rules......Page 213
Selected state practice on procedural rules......Page 214
9.5.4 Institutional mechanisms......Page 215
Selected state practice on institutional mechanisms......Page 216
9.5.5 Dispute settlement and compliance monitoring......Page 218
Selected state practice on dispute settlement and compliance monitoring......Page 219
9.6 Tackling the global water crisis – introducing the H2O paradigm: hydro-diplomacy, hydro-solidarity and opinio juris......Page 220
9.6.1 Hydro-diplomacy – international water law as promoting regional peace and security......Page 222
9.6.2 Hydro-solidarity – international water law to promote collective action and to facilitate improved governance at all levels......Page 223
9.7 Conclusions......Page 224
Annex I. Relevant factors matrix from legal assessment model......Page 225
Annex II. Potential contribution (direct and indirect) of the water sector to attain MDGs......Page 227
I. Treaty law......Page 228
II. Case law......Page 230
III. Secondary sources......Page 231
Endnotes......Page 239
10.1 Introduction......Page 254
10.2 Probabilities and random variables......Page 256
10.3 Uncertainty vs. risk......Page 259
10.4.1 Uniform density function......Page 260
10.4.3 Normal density function......Page 262
10.5 Median of a distribution......Page 264
10.6 Cumulative and exceedance distributions......Page 265
10.6.1 Joint, conditional and marginal probabilities......Page 266
10.7.1 Reliability measures......Page 269
10.8.1 Possibility measures......Page 270
10.8.2 Fuzzy measures......Page 271
10.9 Conclusion......Page 272
References......Page 273
Additional reading......Page 274
11.1.1 Why stakeholder engagement is essential......Page 275
11.1.3 Benefits of stakeholder engagement......Page 276
11.1.4 The ‘spectrum’ of stakeholder engagement......Page 277
11.2 Typical stages and techniques for effective stakeholder processes......Page 279
11.2.1 Assessment and planning......Page 280
11.2.2 Organisation and process design......Page 281
11.2.3 Types of meetings and events......Page 283
11.2.4 Mutual education and joint fact-finding......Page 286
11.2.5 An interest-based approach to developing goals, ideas and options......Page 288
11.2.6 Building agreements: the negotiation phase......Page 290
11.2.7 Sustainable solutions: assurances, adaptation and monitoring......Page 294
Suggested further readings......Page 296
12.2 Overview of capacity building in the water sector......Page 298
12.3 Developments in addressing capacity needs......Page 300
12.4 Formal education and informal training......Page 303
12.5 Knowledge management and networking......Page 306
12.6 Measuring effects and impacts of capacity building......Page 308
12.6.1 Capacity for what?......Page 309
12.6.3 Measuring outputs and outcomes......Page 311
12.6.4 Measuring impact through performance......Page 312
References......Page 313
13.1 Introduction......Page 316
13.2 Conceptual foundations......Page 318
13.2.1 Roots of the adaptive management approach in ecology......Page 319
13.2.2 IWRM approach......Page 320
13.2.3 Innovation in dealing with uncertainty......Page 323
13.2.4.1 Models supporting learning......Page 324
13.3.1 Criteria for success and avoiding failure......Page 326
13.3.2 Template to analyse adaptive management processes......Page 328
13.4 Conclusions and challenges ahead......Page 329
References......Page 330
14.2 Gender and water in international policy......Page 335
14.3 Complex livelihoods and the pluralities of water access and use......Page 338
14.4.1 Control over land......Page 341
14.4.2 Paying for water......Page 343
14.4.3 Water work, gendered labour......Page 344
14.5 Voice, participation, and decision-making......Page 345
14.6.2 Information and tools......Page 348
14.6.4 Financing......Page 349
References......Page 350
15.1 Introduction......Page 355
15.1.1 The case study: ACT Environmental Flow Guidelines......Page 357
15.3 Experimental design and increasing certainty of management-induced ecological outcomes......Page 358
15.4 Management adaptations through time......Page 362
15.5 Features of successful adaptive management and evidence-based decisions......Page 368
References......Page 371
Part III Water resources planning and management: case studies......Page 375
III. 1 Water and waste water treatment......Page 377
16.1 Introduction......Page 379
16.2 The beginnings......Page 380
16.3 Perth’s water future......Page 383
16.3.1 Supplementing supply......Page 384
16.3.2 Demand management......Page 387
16.4 Matching supply and demand......Page 388
References......Page 390
17.1 Introduction......Page 391
17.2 Water allocation in the Krishna Basin......Page 392
17.3.1 Water supply to Hyderabad......Page 394
17.3.3 Environmental considerations......Page 397
17.4 The need for IWRM – conclusions......Page 399
References......Page 401
Endnotes......Page 403
18.2.1 Organisation of the water sector......Page 404
18.2.2 Control and regulation of water services......Page 406
18.2.3 The pricing of water services......Page 407
18.2.4 Water consumption in the residential sector......Page 408
18.3.1 Data description and a first statistical analysis......Page 410
18.3.2 A treatment effect approach......Page 412
18.3.3 Empirical results......Page 414
References......Page 416
Endnotes......Page 417
19.1.1 Regional water management context......Page 419
19.2.1 Project initiation and process design......Page 420
19.2.2 Process implementation......Page 422
19.3.1 Mapping regional flood and drought risk perceptions......Page 424
19.3.2 Identification of visions and values......Page 428
19.3.3 Management strategies and final project recommendations......Page 430
19.3.4 Example evaluation results and insights......Page 433
19.4.1 Critical reflections on the qualitative participatory modelling approach......Page 436
19.4.2 Paving a way from technocratic to collaborative management......Page 437
19.4.3 Final thoughts for collaborative water management: the need for understanding procedural complexity......Page 439
19.5 Conclusions......Page 440
References......Page 441
III. 2 Agricultural water use......Page 445
20.2 The Colorado River Basin......Page 447
20.3 Legal framework......Page 450
20.4.2 Operational hierarchy......Page 452
20.5 Scientific collaborations......Page 454
20.6 Impetus for the Interim Guidelines......Page 456
20.7 Development and implementation of the Interim Guidelines......Page 457
20.8 Discussion......Page 458
20.9 Conclusion......Page 459
Acknowledgements......Page 460
References......Page 461
Endnotes......Page 462
21.2 The Murray–Darling Basin......Page 463
21.3 Climate change in the Murray–Darling Basin......Page 468
21.4 Consequences for water resources......Page 472
21.5 Environmental consequences......Page 477
21.6 Conclusions......Page 480
Acknowledgements......Page 481
References......Page 482
III. 3 Urban water supply and management......Page 485
22.1 Introduction......Page 487
22.2 Reticulated water services......Page 488
22.4 Present water consumption patterns......Page 491
22.5 Demand......Page 492
22.6 Supply......Page 493
22.8 The Australian city......Page 494
22.9 Recycled water......Page 495
22.10 Desalination......Page 497
22.11 Stormwater......Page 498
22.13 Nested cascade......Page 499
22.14 Making the transition to sustainability......Page 500
22.15 Conclusion......Page 503
References......Page 504
Endnote......Page 506
23.1 Introduction......Page 507
23.2 Water Sensitive Urban Design......Page 509
23.2.1 Guiding principles of WSUD......Page 511
23.3.1 Integrated management of the urban water streams......Page 512
23.3.2 Urban design integration......Page 514
Bioretention systems......Page 515
23.3.3 Improving urban waterway health......Page 516
23.4 Urban water governance......Page 518
23.5 The water sensitive city......Page 520
23.5.1 The ‘three pillar’ framework for water sensitive cities......Page 521
23.5.1.2 Cities providing ecosystem services......Page 522
23.5.1.3 The social and institutional capital of a water sensitive city......Page 523
23.6 Emerging challenges in urban water management......Page 524
References......Page 525
Endnotes......Page 528
24.2 History of Adelaide’s water supply......Page 529
24.3 Recent water security issues......Page 530
24.4 Drivers for change in water supplies......Page 532
24.5.1 River Murray......Page 533
24.5.2 Water conservation......Page 534
24.5.4 Stormwater recycling......Page 535
24.5.5 Recycling treated sewage effluent......Page 538
24.5.7 Increasing Mount Lofty storages......Page 539
24.6 Considerations in selecting a mix of options......Page 540
24.7 Process of selecting options......Page 544
Acknowledgements......Page 547
References......Page 548
III. 4 Aquatic ecosystems......Page 551
25.1.1 Availability of water resources in Bangladesh......Page 553
25.1.2 Demands for water......Page 554
25.1.3 Uses of water......Page 555
25.2.1 Hydrogeological setting of Bangladesh......Page 556
25.2.2 Aquifer systems of Bangladesh......Page 558
25.2.3 Water level fluctuations and groundwater flow conditions......Page 559
25.3.1 Introduction......Page 561
25.3.2.2 Controls on occurrences......Page 562
25.3.2.3 Mitigation and management of arsenic......Page 564
25.3.3 Groundwater contamination in Dhaka City aquifers......Page 566
25.3.4 Agricultural chemical residues......Page 569
25.3.6 Microbiological contamination......Page 571
25.3.7.1 Manganese......Page 572
25.4 Management and monitoring of groundwater quality......Page 574
25.4.4 Water quality analytical facilities......Page 578
Acknowledgments......Page 579
References......Page 580
III. 5 Industrial and mining water use......Page 585
26.1.1 What are ‘tar sands’?......Page 587
26.2.2 Bedrock and Holocene geology......Page 590
26.2.3 Hydrogeology (after Komex, 2007)......Page 591
26.3.1 Declining discharge, climate change, and industrial water removals......Page 592
26.3.2.2 Sediment......Page 594
26.3.2.4 Acute and chronic water pollution: examples......Page 595
26.3.3.1 Water quantity and quality......Page 596
26.3.4 Public health impacts......Page 597
26.3.5 Lack of scientific oversight......Page 601
26.5 Conclusions......Page 602
References......Page 603
27.1 Introduction......Page 607
27.2 The geographical setting......Page 608
27.4.1 River sedimentation......Page 610
27.4.3 Acid rock drainage......Page 612
27.4.5 Fisheries decline......Page 614
27.4.6 Long-term acidification risk......Page 615
27.5 Governance and the Ok Tedi mine......Page 616
References......Page 619
III. 6 Rural and remote communities......Page 623
28.1 Introduction......Page 625
28.2 River systems: the ecological foundation of Aboriginal livelihoods......Page 627
28.3 National water policy and Aboriginal access to water......Page 628
28.4 Aboriginal rights to water under Australian law......Page 629
28.5 The introduction and development of exclusive water resource institutions......Page 631
28.6 Closing the hydrological frontier: Australia’s water economy matures......Page 635
28.7 The Murray–Darling Cap: what room for native title?......Page 639
28.8 Aboriginal access mechanisms......Page 641
28.9 Conclusions......Page 645
References......Page 647
Endnotes......Page 651
29.1 Introduction......Page 653
29.2.1 Indigenous people in northern Australia......Page 654
29.2.2 Indigenous disadvantage......Page 655
29.3 Water reform in Australia......Page 657
29.3.1 Indigenous people and national water reform......Page 658
29.4.1 Water markets in northern Australia......Page 659
29.5 Water access and social equity......Page 661
29.6 Indigenous values and aspirations to water......Page 662
29.7 Initiatives to provide for social equity in water markets......Page 664
29.8 Conclusion......Page 666
References......Page 667
III. 7 Water infrastructure design and operation......Page 671
30.1 Introduction......Page 673
30.2.1 Statistical methods......Page 674
30.2.2.2 Continuous simulation rainfall–runoff modelling......Page 675
30.2.2.3 Physics-based modelling......Page 677
30.2.2.5 Conclusions......Page 679
30.3.1 Urbanisation......Page 680
30.3.2 Urban stormwater flooding......Page 681
30.3.4 Rural land use management and flooding......Page 682
30.4.1 Scenarios of future climate......Page 684
30.4.2 Assessment of the impacts of climate change......Page 686
30.4.3 Science needs for impacts assessment......Page 687
30.5 Conclusions......Page 688
References......Page 689
III. 8 Managing water across borders......Page 695
31.1 Introduction......Page 697
31.2 Early twentieth century: the first phase of cross-border institutional design......Page 698
31.3 The 1980s: the second attempt to create a strong decision-making system......Page 700
31.4 What went wrong?......Page 704
31.5 Now: the third attempt......Page 705
References......Page 708
Endnotes......Page 709
32.1 Introduction......Page 710
32.2 Water conflict and cooperation......Page 711
32.3 Water in the lower Jordan River......Page 712
32.3.1 Management and development of water resources......Page 714
32.3.2 History of Israeli–Palestinian and Israeli–Jordanian water relations......Page 715
32.3.2.1 Israeli–Palestinian water relations......Page 716
32.4 Existing initiatives to promote water cooperation......Page 717
32.4.1.1 The Israeli–Palestinian Joint Water Committee......Page 718
32.4.2 The Regional Water Data Banks Project......Page 719
32.4.3 The Good Water Neighbors project......Page 720
32.5 Challenges to water cooperation......Page 722
32.6 Conclusion and recommendations......Page 723
References......Page 724
Endnotes......Page 727
33.1 Introduction......Page 729
33.2.1 Important features of Yellow River hydrology......Page 730
33.3.1 Historical management of the Yellow River Basin......Page 731
33.3.1.2 Basin development and management during the early twentieth century......Page 732
33.3.1.3 Basin development since 1949......Page 733
33.3.3 Science and technology: modern hydraulic engineering and mass mobilisation......Page 734
33.3.4 International cooperation and self-reliance......Page 735
33.4.1 Current challenges......Page 736
33.4.2 Declining supplies......Page 737
33.4.4 New recognition of environmental needs......Page 738
33.5.1 Current responses......Page 739
33.5.3 Changing mechanisms......Page 740
33.5.4 Engineering not forgotten......Page 742
33.6 Discussion and conclusion......Page 744
References......Page 745
Endnote......Page 747
34.1 Significance of the Mekong River......Page 748
34.2 The development of a Mekong River basin organisation......Page 750
34.3 Defining the role of the MRC......Page 751
34.4.2 Fisheries......Page 753
34.4.3 The Hydropower Programme......Page 754
34.4.4 The Basin Development Plan......Page 755
34.4.5 The Water Utilization Programme......Page 756
34.4.6 Environment Programme......Page 758
34.5 Technical achievements vs political failures......Page 759
34.6 Conclusions......Page 760
References......Page 761
III. 9 Market mechanisms in water management......Page 765
35.1 Role of inter-sectoral water trading in climate change adaptation......Page 767
35.3.1 Lead organisation......Page 768
35.3.3 Program structures to establish payment levels......Page 769
35.3.5 Criteria to select among offers to participate......Page 772
35.3.7 Monitoring and enforcement provisions......Page 774
35.3.8 Addressing Economic and Enviromental Impacts......Page 775
35.3.10 Overall program costs, including transaction costs......Page 776
References......Page 777
Contributors......Page 779
Index......Page 791