Water Policy in Pakistan : Issues and Options

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Editor and Contributors
About the Editor
About the Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I: Setting the Stage
	Chapter 1: Pakistan’s Water: Changing the Narrative, Changing the Outcomes
		1.1 Water—Pakistan’s Lifeline
			1.1.1 Old and New Challenges
			1.1.2 The Global Scenario and How It Affects Pakistan
			1.1.3 Pakistan’s Water Economy Within a Pattern of Inequalities
		1.2 Transformative Framework
			1.2.1 Building Pride in Pakistan’s Hydrology and Geography
			1.2.2 Maintaining the Integrity of the Indus Basin
			1.2.3 Understanding and Regulating Groundwater Use
			1.2.4 Recognizing the Barani (Rainfed), Watershed, Desert and Coastal Areas Outside the Indus Basin
			1.2.5 Rationalizing the Value of Water
			1.2.6 Financing and Protecting the Water Value Chain
			1.2.7 Building a National Investment Base for Water
			1.2.8 Zoning to Improve Water and Crop Productivity
			1.2.9 Instituting Circular Economy of Water in Urban Areas
			1.2.10 Water Conservation
		1.3 Entitlements Based on All Available Water
		1.4 Building a Base for Science, Technology, and the Social Aspects of Water
		1.5 Inducting Talented Young Women into the Water Sector
		1.6 Demonstration of Leadership by the Government
		References
	Chapter 2: The Political Economy of Water
		2.1 Introduction
			2.1.1 A Broad Overview of Pakistan’s Political Economy of Water
				2.1.1.1 The Politics of Narrative: Reducing Demand vs. Increasing Supply
				2.1.1.2 Valuing Water
		2.2 Demand Sectors
			2.2.1 Irrigation and the Structure of the Economy
			2.2.2 The Political Economy of Food Security
				2.2.2.1 Agricultural Participation and Relations
				2.2.2.2 Adapting Crops to Water Shortages and Saline Soils
				2.2.2.3 The Price of Essential Commodities and Their Link to Water Allocation Policies
				2.2.2.4 Dairy Cattle and Water Impacts
		2.3 The Political Economy of Interprovincial Water-Sharing
			2.3.1 Valuing Groundwater
		2.4 A New-ish Consideration: The Overlapping of Water, Energy, and Climate Policy
			2.4.1 Water Policy: Legal and Regulatory Considerations
		2.5 The Political Economy of Urban Water Supply and Land Settlement
			2.5.1 The Emerging Politics of Land Acquisition
			2.5.2 An Emergent Positive Development—A Land Registry
		2.6 Tentative Concluding Thoughts
		References
Part II: Resource Stocktaking and Emphasis on Moving from Surface to Conjunctive Water Use
	Chapter 3: Water Resource Potential: Status and Overview
		3.1 The History of Water-Centric Policies and Strategies in Pakistan
		3.2 The Stock of Available Water Resources and Their Sectoral Uses
			3.2.1 Historical Trends in Withdrawals (Surface and Groundwater) in the Indus Basin
			3.2.2 Historical Trends: Per Capita Water Availability
			3.2.3 Rainfall Stock in the Indus Basin
			3.2.4 Water Allocation in Different Sectors of the Indus Basin
			3.2.5 Water Allocation for the Agriculture Sector
			3.2.6 Water Allocation for the Domestic Sector
			3.2.7 Water Allocation for the Industrial Sector
			3.2.8 Water Allocation for the Environmental Sector
		3.3 Best Water Use Options Under a Changing Climate
			3.3.1 More Storage to Improve Water Availability
			3.3.2 Improving Agricultural Water Productivity
			3.3.3 Improve Groundwater Use by Rationalizing Cropping Patterns
			3.3.4 Better Resources Utilization at the Field and Basin Scales
			3.3.5 Strengthening Institutions
		3.4 Water Governance
			3.4.1 Water Management and Governance Challenges
			3.4.2 Fragmentation and Duplication of Roles and Responsibilities
				3.4.2.1 Technical Capacity and Human Resources
				3.4.2.2 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance
				3.4.2.3 Monitoring
				3.4.2.4 Political Interference
				3.4.2.5 Challenges Related to Financial Stability and Lack of Investment
				3.4.2.6 Challenges Related to Mega-Trends
		References
	Chapter 4: Water Supply and Demand: National and Regional Trends
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Pakistan’s Water Resources
			4.2.1 Precipitation and Glacial Resources
			4.2.2 Indus Basin Irrigation System
			4.2.3 Historical River Water Flow Trends
			4.2.4 Probability of River Water Availability
			4.2.5 Groundwater Resources
			4.2.6 Distribution of Water Resources
			4.2.7 Water Resource Management
		4.3 Demand for Water in Pakistan
			4.3.1 Water Allocation for Sectors of Water Use
			4.3.2 Demand in Agriculture
			4.3.3 Demand for Non-agricultural Sectors
			4.3.4 Temporal and Sectoral Trends in Demand
			4.3.5 Demand Management Approaches
		4.4 Water Balance
			4.4.1 Equating Demand and Supply
			4.4.2 Water Balance and Climate Change
			4.4.3 Role of Extreme Events: Floods and Droughts
			4.4.4 Weaknesses in Water Governance and Policies
		4.5 Water Treaties and Accords
			4.5.1 Indus Water Treaty
			4.5.2 Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord
			4.5.3 Gaps in the Water Treaties and Accords
		4.6 Water in the Regional Context
			4.6.1 Water Resource Planning for Regional Sustainability
			4.6.2 Water Scenarios in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and India
			4.6.3 Historical Trends of the Region
			4.6.4 Comparative Study of Regional Successes and Gaps
		4.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Water Quality and Salinity
		5.1 Introduction and Context
		5.2 Situation Analysis
			5.2.1 Groundwater Quality
			5.2.2 Surface Water Quality
			5.2.3 Waterlogging and Salinity
		5.3 Infrastructure Development
		5.4 Projects to Control Waterlogging and Salinity
			5.4.1 SCARP Projects
			5.4.2 SCARP Transition Pilot Project
			5.4.3 National Drainage Program
			5.4.4 Private Sector Groundwater Development
			5.4.5 Left Bank Outfall Drain Project (LBOD)
			5.4.6 Right Bank Outfall Drain Project (RBOD)
		5.5 Outcome and Impacts of Drainage Projects
		5.6 Policies and Standards
			5.6.1 Pakistan Water Vision 2025
			5.6.2 National Water Policy, 2018
			5.6.3 National Drinking Water Policy, 2009
			5.6.4 National Environmental Policy, 2005
			5.6.5 Environmental and Water Quality Standards
			5.6.6 Provincial Water Policies
		5.7 International Obligations—SDGs
		5.8 Lessons Learnt
			5.8.1 Management and Governance Issues
			5.8.2 Financial Instability in Water Supply Infrastructure
			5.8.3 Over-Exploitation of Groundwater Sources
			5.8.4 Control of Salinity and Waterlogging
		5.9 The Way Forward
			5.9.1 Control Wastewater Pollution
			5.9.2 Investment in Wastewater Infrastructure
			5.9.3 Rehabilitation of Existing Water Supply Infrastructure
			5.9.4 Regular Monitoring of Drinking Water Sources
			5.9.5 Enforcement of Water and Environmental Legislations
			5.9.6 Rain Water Harvesting and Artificial Ground Water Recharge
			5.9.7 Control Waterlogging and Salinity
		References
	Chapter 6: Groundwater Governance in Pakistan: An Emerging Challenge
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Groundwater in the Global Context
		6.3 Groundwater in the IRB
		6.4 Poor Management of Infrastructure
		6.5 Public Perception and Cultural Aspects of Groundwater
		6.6 Poor Economic Goals
			6.6.1 Three Policy Responses to the Challenges with a Focus on Groundwater
		6.7 Punjab Government – Some Recent Responses
			6.7.1 Improving Coordination of Surface and Groundwater Planning and Management
			6.7.2 A Better Understanding of Groundwater Resources and Recharge Management
				6.7.2.1 Resource Assessment
				6.7.2.2 Resource Protection and Conservation
			6.7.3 Increased Awareness of Groundwater Issues in General Population
			6.7.4 Integration
		6.8 Improved Economic Levers
		6.9 Improved on Farm Water Use Efficiency
		6.10 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Framework
			6.10.1 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Policy Framework
		6.11 Groundwater Governance Might Work Within an IWRM Framework: A Case Study in Punjab
			6.11.1 Punjab Groundwater Management
			6.11.2 Potential Integrated Approach for Groundwater
				6.11.2.1 Vertical and Horizontal Linkages
		6.12 Conclusions and Recommendations
			6.12.1 Conclusions
			6.12.2 Recommendations
				6.12.2.1 Proposed Parameters for Demarcation of Groundwater Basins and Sub-Basins in Punjab
				6.12.2.2 Gaps Identification
		References
	Chapter 7: Storage and Hydropower
		7.1 Land Resources
		7.2 Rivers and the Irrigation System
		7.3 Population
		7.4 Water Demand
		7.5 Water Sector Dilemma
			7.5.1 Coping with Growing Demand
			7.5.2 Coping with Floods
				7.5.2.1 Rainfall
				7.5.2.2 Urban Flooding
				7.5.2.3 Flash Floods
				7.5.2.4 River Flooding
		7.6 The Challenges of Hydropower in Pakistan
		7.7 Policy Perspective on Storage and Hydropower Generation
		7.8 The Need for Storage in the Indus Basin
			7.8.1 Contribution of Existing Storage Reservoirs to Increased Water Availability
			7.8.2 Indus Waters Treaty
			7.8.3 Water Apportionment Accord
			7.8.4 Replacement of Lost Storage Capacity
		7.9 Surface Water Availability in the Indus Basin
			7.9.1 Inflows
			7.9.2 Canal Withdrawals in the Indus Basin
			7.9.3 Outflow to the Sea
			7.9.4 Water Losses from Rim Stations to the Sea
			7.9.5 Surface Water Balance of Indus System
			7.9.6 Environmental Flows
			7.9.7 Existing Storage Projects in the Indus Basin
			7.9.8 Storage Projects Under Construction
			7.9.9 Planned Storage Projects
		7.10 Storage Potential of the Indus Basin
		7.11 Small Dams
			7.11.1 Definition and Purpose
			7.11.2 Performance of Small Dams
			7.11.3 Small Dams vs Large Dams
		7.12 Mini Dams
		7.13 Power Demand
		7.14 Current Production Modes and Fuel Costs of Generation
			7.14.1 Production Mode
			7.14.2 Fuel Cost for Different Power Generation Sources
		7.15 Energy Sector Policy and Institutional Framework
		7.16 Hydropower in Pakistan
		7.17 Hydropower Outlook and Challenges
		7.18 Concluding Remarks
			7.18.1 Storage
			7.18.2 Hydropower
		References
Part III: A Transformative Agenda and Its Drivers
	The Drivers
		Water Sector
		Agricultural Sector
	Chapter 8: The Impact of Climate Change on the Indus Basin: Challenges and Constraints
		8.1 Introduction to the Indus River Basin
		8.2 Physiography of the Indus River Basin
		8.3 River Network and Principal Hydrological Units of the Indus River Basin
		8.4 Climate of the Indus River Basin
		8.5 Significance of the Indus River Basin
			8.5.1 Contributions in Irrigation
			8.5.2 Contributions in Hydro-Power
		8.6 Challenges
			8.6.1 Population Growth
			8.6.2 Climate Change
			8.6.3 Potential Adaptation and Mitigation Measures
		References
	Chapter 9: Managing Pakistan’s Groundwater
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 The Problem
			9.2.1 Open Access Regime
			9.2.2 Myopic Behavior
			9.2.3 Regulatory Failures
		9.3 Policy Instruments
			9.3.1 Sustainability Criteria
			9.3.2 Optimal Management
			9.3.3 Groundwater Quotas
			9.3.4 Groundwater Charges
			9.3.5 Tradable Groundwater Permits
		References
	Chapter 10: Agriculture and Water
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Water, Agriculture and Climate Change
			10.2.1 Water and the Green Revolution
		10.3 The Need for a New Approach and Mindset
			10.3.1 Moving Towards Nature-Based Climate-Smart or Regenerative Agriculture
				10.3.1.1 Global Initiative—FAO’s “Grow and Save Approach”
				10.3.1.2 Nature-Based Agriculture in Pakistan— Leading Initiative by PEDAVER
				10.3.1.3 Technologies and Practices for Water Conservation
				10.3.1.4 Key Benefits of RA
				10.3.1.5 Limitations of RA and/or PEDAVER’s PQNK System
				10.3.1.6 Recommendations
				10.3.1.7 Institutional Support
		10.4 The Way Forward
		References
	Chapter 11: Water Pricing, Demand Management, and Allocative Efficiency
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Policy Options—Supply vs. Demand Management
		11.3 A Policy Framework for Water Demand Management (WDM)
			11.3.1 Water Productivity
				11.3.1.1 More Crop per Drop
				11.3.1.2 More Value per Drop
				11.3.1.3 Rationale for Increasing Water Productivity
			11.3.2 Water Pricing and Allocation—An Unfinished Policy Action
			11.3.3 Technology Take-off and the Price of Irrigation Water
			11.3.4 Water Allocation Among and Within Sectors
			11.3.5 Water and Ecosystem Services
			11.3.6 Missed Opportunities—Unconventional Water Use Options
		11.4 Key Lessons
		11.5 Case Studies
			11.5.1 Actions at the Micro Level
			11.5.2 Actions at the Macro Level
		References
	Chapter 12: Wastewater Treatment in Pakistan: Issues, Challenges and Solutions
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Transboundary Basins and Water Quality
			12.2.1 Kabul River Basin
		12.3 Wastewater Re-use
			12.3.1 Irrigation
		12.4 Impact of Wastewater Treatment Inefficiency
			12.4.1 Waterborne Diseases
		12.5 Wastewater Treatment Regulation
		12.6 Wastewater Treatment Initiatives
			12.6.1 National University of Science and Technology (NUST), Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Plant: Establishment to Operation
			12.6.2 Operation of the NUST MBR Plant
			12.6.3 Future Perspectives
		12.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: The Water, Food, and Energy Nexus: The Key to a Transformative Agenda
		13.1 Introduction
			13.1.1 The Green Economy and the Nexus Perspective
			13.1.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Nexus Approach
			13.1.3 Global Initiatives and the Nexus
			13.1.4 Pakistan’s Vision 2025 and the Nexus
		13.2 The Need for Change and a Nexus-Transformative Agenda
			13.2.1 Energy Security
			13.2.2 Water Security
			13.2.3 Food Security
		13.3 Case Studies
			13.3.1 Case Study 1: The Impact of Energy Subsidies in Oman
			13.3.2 Case Study 2: WEF Nexus—The Potential of Making the Thal Desert Bloom in Punjab, Pakistan
			13.3.3 Case Study 3: Nexus in Central Asia—A Case of Transboundary Issues
		13.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Pakistan’s Transboundary Water Governance Mechanisms and Challenges
		14.1 Introduction and the Indus’ Geo-Strategic Context
			14.1.1 Brief Introduction on Asian Water Data and Pakistan’s Rising Water Insecurity
			14.1.2 The Indus’ Historic and Changing Geo-Strategic Context
		14.2 Role of International Water Laws and Customary International Water Law
			14.2.1 The Helsinki Rules, the UN Watercourses Convention and Co-evolving International Water Law
				14.2.1.1 The Helsinki Rules
				14.2.1.2 The 1997 United Nations International Watercourses Convention
		14.3 Pakistan’s Approach to International Water Law
			14.3.1 History—Colonial Roots—The Control of Surface Water
			14.3.2 Pakistan’s Participation in International Water Law and the IWT
				14.3.2.1 The Growing Threats to the Indus Waters Treaty 1960
		14.4 Pakistan’s National and Interprovincial Water-Sharing Framework
			14.4.1 History of Interprovincial Water Issues
			14.4.2 Key Features of the WAA 1991
				14.4.2.1 Key Issues as Identified by Stakeholders at the Interprovincial Level
					Perspective from Punjab
					Perspective from Sindh
					Perspective from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
					Perspective from Balochistan
				14.4.2.2 Interprovincial Water Issues of Pakistan—A Network of Distrust and Suspicion
				14.4.2.3 The Way Forward
					Open, Reliable and Accurate Data Availability Needs to be Ensured
					Capacity Building and IRSA Reforms Are Needed
					Educate for a more Harmonious Political Ecology of Water Distribution
					Increase Overall Availability of Water
					Improve Perception of Fairness Among All Provinces
					Enable Collaborative Interactions Among Irrigation Departments
					Learn from Others
		14.5 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: From Management to Nexus to Governance and Wisdom
	Chapter 15: Developing Knowledge Capacity and Wisdom for Water Resource Management and Service Delivery: New Conceptual Models and Tools
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 An Historical Geographic Perspective on Knowledge Capacity
		15.3 Current Gaps and Bottlenecks
		15.4 Toward a New Philosophy of Knowledge Capacity for Pakistan’s Water Resources
			15.4.1 From Knowledge to Wisdom
			15.4.2 Science, Technology, Knowledge, and Intelligence
			15.4.3 Education, Environment, and Social Change: Capacity Building for Everyone
		15.5 Wise Indus Basin Gardeners of the Twenty-First Century
		References
	Chapter 16: A Transformative Framework for the Water Sector
		16.1 Introduction
			16.1.1 Twentieth Century Water Resource Management in Pakistan
			16.1.2 A New Century Needs New Thinking, New Actions, and a Transformative Agenda
		16.2 Lessons Learnt on Water Management in Pakistan
		16.3 New Factors
			16.3.1 Climate Change
			16.3.2 The Food-Energy and Irrigation Nexus
			16.3.3 Benefitting from Unconventional Water Use
		16.4 Framework for Actions—Implementing a Transformative Agenda
			16.4.1 Developing an Inclusive Water Economy
				16.4.1.1 Better Access to Water for the Poor
				16.4.1.2 The Equity Issue
				16.4.1.3 The Role of Women
				16.4.1.4 Improving the Integrity and Sustainability of the Indus Basin Irrigation System
		16.5 Key Components of Transformative Process—The Strategic Options
			16.5.1 Supply Side Options
			16.5.2 Demand Management Options
			16.5.3 Regenerative or Climate Resilient Agriculture
			16.5.4 Reinvest in Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in Water Sector
			16.5.5 Addressing Climate Change and Disaster: Impact and Coping Mechanism
			16.5.6 Food-Water-Energy Nexus—More Research needed to find real Tradeoff
			16.5.7 Mobilizing Unconventional Water Use
			16.5.8 Institutions and Governance
			16.5.9 From Management to Nexus to Governance and Wisdom
			16.5.10 Creating Enabling Environments, Capacity Building to Meet Future Challenges
		References