Waste Immobilization in Glass and Ceramic Based Hosts: Radioactive, Toxic and Hazardous Wastes

Waste Immobilizationin Glass and Ceramic Based Hosts......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgements......Page 15
List of Abbreviations......Page 17
1.1 Categories of Waste and Waste Generation in the Modern World......Page 21
1.1.1 Radioactive Wastes from Nuclear Power and Defence Operations......Page 22
1.1.2 Toxic and Hazardous Wastes......Page 27
1.1.3 Other Sources of Waste Material......Page 29
1.2 General Disposal Options......Page 31
1.3 Radiation Issues......Page 39
1.4 Waste Disposal and the Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors......Page 41
1.5 Nuclear Accidents and the Lessons Learnt......Page 45
References......Page 51
2: Materials Toxicity and Biological Effects......Page 57
2.1.1 Beryllium, Barium and Radium......Page 58
2.1.2 Vanadium......Page 59
2.1.4 Manganese, Technetium and Rhenium......Page 60
2.1.5 Platinum-group Metals......Page 61
2.1.7 Copper, Silver and Gold......Page 62
2.1.8 Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury......Page 63
2.1.9 Aluminium and Thallium......Page 65
2.1.10 Tin and Lead......Page 66
2.1.11 Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth......Page 68
2.1.12 Selenium, Tellurium and Polonium......Page 69
2.1.13 Thorium, Uranium, Neptunium, Plutonium and Americium......Page 70
2.3 Asbestos......Page 71
References......Page 75
3: Glass and Ceramic Based Systems and General Processing Methods......Page 77
3.1.1 Glass-Forming Ability......Page 78
3.2.2 Phosphate Glasses......Page 81
3.3 Ceramics......Page 82
3.4 Glass-Ceramics......Page 83
3.6 Processing of Glass and Ceramic Materials......Page 88
3.6.3 Hot Pressing......Page 89
3.6.6 Microwave Processing......Page 90
References......Page 91
4.1 Chemical Analysis......Page 95
4.2 Thermal Analysis......Page 96
4.3.1 Optical and Electron Microscopy......Page 98
4.3.3 X-ray and Neutron Diffraction......Page 99
4.3.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance......Page 100
4.4.1 Fracture Mechanics......Page 101
4.4.3 Lifetime Behaviour......Page 103
4.5 Chemical Durability and Standardized Tests......Page 107
4.6 Radiation Stability......Page 112
4.8 Use of Nonradioactive Surrogates......Page 114
References......Page 116
5.1 Sources and Waste Stream Compositions......Page 121
5.1.1 Nuclear Reactor Spent Fuel Wastes......Page 122
5.1.2 Defence Wastes......Page 127
5.1.3 Surplus Materials......Page 128
5.1.4 Special or Unusual Categories of Radioactive Waste......Page 129
5.2 General Immobilization Options......Page 131
References......Page 135
6.1 Vitrification History and the Advancement of Melter Design......Page 141
6.1.1 Pot Processes......Page 142
6.1.2 Continuous Melting by Induction Furnace......Page 144
6.1.3 Joule-Heated Ceramic Melters......Page 148
6.1.4 Cold Crucible Induction Melters......Page 151
6.1.5 Plasma Arc/Torch Melters......Page 155
6.1.9 Alternative Melting Techniques......Page 158
6.1.10 Vitrification Incidents and the Lessons that Have Been Learnt......Page 160
6.2.1 Molybdenum and Caesium......Page 164
6.2.2 Platinum Group Metals......Page 167
6.2.3 Technetium......Page 169
6.2.6 Sulphates......Page 170
6.4.1 Silicate and Borosilicate Glass......Page 171
6.4.2 Phosphate Glasses......Page 183
6.4.3 Rare Earth Oxide Glasses......Page 185
6.4.4 Alternative Glasses......Page 186
6.5 Glass-Forming Ability......Page 188
6.6.1 Sintered and Porous Glass......Page 189
6.6.2 Hot-Pressed Glass......Page 191
6.6.3 Microwave Sintering......Page 195
6.6.4 Self-Sustaining Vitrification......Page 196
References......Page 197
7.1 Titanate and Zirconate Ceramics......Page 205
7.2 Phosphate Ceramics......Page 223
7.3 Aluminosilicate Ceramics......Page 227
7.4 Alternative Ceramics......Page 229
7.5 Cement Based Systems......Page 231
References......Page 232
8: Immobilization of RadioactiveMaterials as a Glass-Ceramic Wasteform......Page 241
8.3 Calcium Magnesium Silicate Glass-Ceramics......Page 242
8.4 Calcium Titanium Silicate Glass-Ceramics......Page 247
8.5 Basaltic Glass-Ceramics......Page 248
8.6 Zirconolite Based Glass-Ceramics......Page 250
8.8 Phosphate Based Glass-Ceramics......Page 254
References......Page 257
9.1 Silicate Glasses......Page 261
9.2 Phosphate Glasses......Page 266
9.3 Alternative Vitrification Routes......Page 269
9.4 Ceramic-Based Hosts......Page 271
9.5 Glass-Encapsulated Composite and Hybrid Systems......Page 273
9.6 Oxynitride Glasses......Page 279
9.7 Plutonium Disposition......Page 280
References......Page 286
10.1 Thermal Stability......Page 295
10.2 Chemical Durability......Page 296
10.2.1 General Principles of Glass Durability......Page 297
10.2.2 Durability of Slicate Based Glasses in Water......Page 302
10.2.3 Durability of Silicate Based Glasses in Groundwaters and Repository Environments......Page 311
10.2.4 Durability of Phosphate Based Glasses......Page 316
10.2.5 Lessons to be Learnt from Archaeological Glasses......Page 317
10.2.6 Ceramic Durability......Page 321
10.2.7 Glass-Ceramic Durability......Page 328
10.2.8 Durability of Glass-Encapsulated Ceramic Hybrid Wasteforms......Page 329
10.2.9 Influence of Colloids......Page 330
10.3.1 Glass Stability......Page 331
10.3.2 Ceramic Stability......Page 336
10.3.3 Glass-Encapsulated Ceramic Hybrid Stability......Page 343
10.4 Natural Analogues......Page 344
10.5 Mechanical Properties......Page 348
10.6 Alternative Properties......Page 353
References......Page 354
11.1.1 Vitreous Wasteforms......Page 363
11.1.2 Ceramic Wasteforms......Page 369
11.2.2 Vitreous Wasteforms......Page 370
11.2.3 Ceramic Wasteforms......Page 376
References......Page 377
12: Sources and Compositions of Nonradioactive Toxic and HazardousWastes, and Common Disposal Routes......Page 381
12.1 Incinerator Wastes......Page 385
12.2 Sewage and Dredging Sludges......Page 388
12.5 Alternative Metallurgical Wastes and Slags......Page 390
12.6 Metal Finishing and Plating Wastes......Page 391
12.7 Coal Ash and Fly Ash from Thermal Power Stations......Page 394
12.9 Tannery Industry Wastes......Page 399
12.11 Medical Wastes......Page 400
12.12 Electrical and Electronic Wastes......Page 403
12.13 Alternative Wastes......Page 404
References......Page 405
13: Vitrification of Nonradioactive Toxicand Hazardous Wastes......Page 409
13.1 Incinerator Wastes......Page 412
13.2 Sewage and Dredging Sludges......Page 417
13.3 Zinc Hydrometallurgical and Red Mud Wastes......Page 418
13.4 Blast Furnace Slags and Electric Arc Furnace Dusts......Page 419
13.5 Alternative Metallurgical Wastes and Slags......Page 421
13.6 Metal Finishing and Plating Wastes......Page 423
13.7 Coal Ash and Fly Ash from Thermal Power Stations......Page 424
13.9 Asbestos......Page 426
13.10 Medical Wastes......Page 427
13.12 Alternative Wastes......Page 428
13.13 Mixed Nonradioactive Hazardous Wastes......Page 429
13.14 Glass-Ceramics for Nonradioactive Waste Immobilization......Page 430
13.15 Commercial Hazardous Waste Vitrification Facilities......Page 438
References......Page 440
14.1 Alternatives to Vitrification......Page 449
14.3 Use of Waste Glass to Prepare New Materials......Page 455
14.4.1 Mechanical Properties......Page 456
14.4.2 Chemical Durability......Page 460
14.4.3 Structural and Modelling Studies......Page 461
14.4.4 Use of Less Hazardous or Nontoxic Surrogates......Page 462
14.5 Applications......Page 464
References......Page 465
15: Influence of Organic, Micro-organismand Microbial Activity on Wasteform Integrity......Page 471
15.1 Micro-Organism Activity and Transport Mechanisms......Page 472
15.2 Repository Environments......Page 474
15.3 Repository Analogues......Page 477
15.4 Wasteforms......Page 478
References......Page 482
16.1 Mixed Radioactive and Nonradioactive Wastes......Page 485
16.2.1 Treatment Facilities......Page 487
16.2.2 Wasteforms......Page 489
16.3 Immediate and Short-Term Future Outlook......Page 493
16.4.1 Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems......Page 494
16.4.2 Element Partitioning and Transmutation......Page 498
16.5.1 Wasteforms Studied in the Past and Short-Term Future Direction......Page 499
16.5.2 Alternative Wasteforms and Longer Term Future Direction......Page 504
16.6 Wasteform Characterization......Page 506
16.7 Standards, Regulatory Requirements, and Performance Assessments......Page 507
16.8 Overall Conclusions......Page 509
References......Page 510
Index......Page 513