War, Aggression and Self-Defence

War, Aggression and Self-Defence......Page 2
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Introduction to the fifth edition......Page 14
From the introduction to the first edition......Page 15
Table of cases......Page 17
Table of treaties......Page 20
Table of Security Council resolutions......Page 26
Table of General Assembly resolutions......Page 28
Abbreviations......Page 29
Part I The legal nature of war......Page 34
A. The numerous meanings of war......Page 36
(a) Inter-State and intra-State wars......Page 38
(b) War in the technical sense and in the material sense......Page 42
(c) Total wars, limited wars and incidents ‘short of war’......Page 44
(d) War as an asymmetrical phenomenon......Page 46
II. Status mixtus......Page 48
A. Peacetime status mixtus......Page 49
B. Wartime status mixtus......Page 50
(a) The general rule......Page 52
(b) The exception: neutralized zones......Page 53
B. The high seas and the exclusive economic zone......Page 55
C. Outer space......Page 57
A. The basic principles......Page 58
(a) Passage of belligerent military units and war materials......Page 59
(c) Military supplies to Belligerent Parties......Page 60
A. War in the technical sense......Page 63
B. War in the material sense......Page 66
(a) The significance of a treaty of peace......Page 67
(b) Peace preliminaries......Page 71
(c) The legal validity of a treaty of peace......Page 72
(a) The transformation in the meaning of armistice......Page 74
(b) An analysis of the Israeli armistice agreements......Page 78
(c) The disparity and similarity between an armistice and a treaty of peace......Page 80
(a) Implied mutual consent......Page 81
(b) Debellatio......Page 82
A. Different types of suspension of hostilities......Page 84
(a) Local cease-fire agreements......Page 85
(b) General cease-fire agreements......Page 86
(c) Cease-fire ordained by the Security Council......Page 87
B. The nature of cease-fire......Page 89
(a) The fragility of cease-fire......Page 91
(b) ‘Material breach’ of cease-fire agreements......Page 92
Part II The illegality of war......Page 96
A. The Roman origins......Page 98
B. Christian theology......Page 99
C. The ‘fathers’ of international law......Page 100
A. Kelsen’s theory......Page 102
B. ‘Wars of national liberation’......Page 103
C. ‘Humanitarian intervention’......Page 106
III. The extra-legality of war......Page 108
IV. The legality of war......Page 111
A. Special arrangements......Page 112
B. The Hague Conventions......Page 114
C. The Covenant of the League of Nations......Page 115
I. The Kellogg-Briand Pact......Page 118
(a) Use of force......Page 120
(b) Threats of force......Page 121
B. The non-restrictive scope of the prohibition......Page 122
C. Attempts to limit the range of the prohibition......Page 124
A. The interaction between custom and treaty......Page 127
(a) Article 2(4)......Page 128
(b) Article 2(6)......Page 131
C. Are the norms of the Charter and customary international law on the use of inter-State force identical?......Page 132
A. General treaties......Page 134
B. Regional treaties......Page 135
C. Bilateral treaties......Page 136
(a) A clash between a treaty and peremptory norms......Page 137
(c) The consequences of the peremptory nature of the prohibition......Page 138
B. How can jus cogens be modified?......Page 140
A. Application of general rules of State responsibility......Page 142
(a) The criminal responsibility of States......Page 147
(b) Erga omnes obligations......Page 149
A. Ad hoc consent......Page 151
(a) Consent to foreign military assistance against local insurgents......Page 152
(c) Consent to other foreign uses of force in the local territory......Page 153
(c) The limits of consent and its withdrawal......Page 154
B. Consent by treaty......Page 155
I. The meaning of aggression......Page 157
(a) The background......Page 158
(b) The London Charter......Page 159
(c) The Nuremberg Judgment......Page 160
B. Post-Nuremberg developments......Page 162
C. The Rome Statute and the Kampala Amendments......Page 164
A. Aggression versus war of aggression as a crime......Page 167
B. The criminal impact of the General Assembly definition of Aggression......Page 169
IV. Individual accountability for the crime of Aggression......Page 173
(a) Ratione materiae......Page 174
(b) Ratione personae......Page 175
(c) Ratione temporis......Page 177
B. The mens rea......Page 178
(a) Mistake of fact......Page 180
(c) Duress......Page 181
(d) Insanity......Page 182
(b) Obedience to superior orders......Page 183
(c) Acts of State......Page 186
D. The penal proceedings......Page 187
(i) Diplomatic and consular agents......Page 189
(ii) Heads of States......Page 190
(iii) Certain high-ranking office-holders......Page 191
(iv) The limits of jurisdictional immunities......Page 192
(b) International criminal proceedings......Page 193
6 Controversial consequences of the change in the legal status of war......Page 196
I. War in the technical sense......Page 197
II. Inconclusive ‘police action’......Page 198
(a) The theory......Page 200
(b) The practice......Page 203
(c) Some confusing judicial dicta......Page 205
B. Collective security......Page 207
IV. Impartial neutrality......Page 208
A. The survival of neutrality......Page 209
B. Non-members of the United Nations......Page 210
C. Qualified neutrality......Page 211
V. Territorial changes......Page 213
B. Self-determination......Page 214
C. Jus cogens......Page 215
D. Non-recognition......Page 216
Part III Exceptions to the prohibition of the use of inter-State force......Page 218
A. The meaning of self-defence......Page 220
B. Self-defence as a right......Page 222
C. Self-defence as an ‘inherent’ right......Page 224
A. Armed attack as a condition to self-defence......Page 226
(a) Anticipatory use of force......Page 227
(b) Article 51 and customary international law......Page 229
(c) The insufficiency of exceptional threats......Page 232
(a) The need to look beyond the ‘first shot’......Page 234
(b) Interceptive self-defence......Page 236
(c) ‘Imminence’......Page 238
(d) A series of acts......Page 239
(a) The gap between Article 2(4) and Article 51......Page 240
(b) Frontier incidents: scale and effects......Page 243
E. The locale of an armed attack......Page 245
(a) The unauthorized crossing of a frontier......Page 246
(c) Armed attacks within the territory of the aggressor State......Page 247
(d) Armed attacks within the territory of a third State......Page 248
(a) The wide range of possible targets......Page 249
(b) Attacks against nationals abroad......Page 250
III. De facto organs of a State......Page 252
A. The employment by a State of ‘auxiliaries’......Page 253
B. The criterion of effective control......Page 254
A. The language of the Charter......Page 257
B. The origin of attacks by non-State actors......Page 258
C. Attacks by non-State actors as armed attacks......Page 260
V. Conditions precedent to the exercise of self-defence......Page 263
A. Necessity......Page 264
B. Proportionality......Page 265
C. Immediacy......Page 266
A. The two phases rule......Page 267
B. The options before the Security Council......Page 269
C. Failure to report to the Security Council......Page 272
(a) On-the-spot reaction......Page 275
(i) The meaning of defensive armed reprisals......Page 277
(ii) The interplay between defensive armed reprisals and belligerent reprisals......Page 279
(iii) The conditions of necessity, proportionality and immediacy......Page 280
(iv) The legality of defensive armed reprisals......Page 282
(c) The protection of nationals abroad......Page 288
B. War......Page 292
(b) Proportionality......Page 295
(c) Immediacy......Page 300
A. Extra-territorial law enforcement......Page 301
B. The practice of States......Page 305
C. Webster’s formula......Page 307
(b) Individual self-defence collectively exercised......Page 311
B. Collective self-defence as the defence of self......Page 313
C. Is there a need for a treaty?......Page 314
II. Regional arrangements under the Charter of the United Nations......Page 315
III. Collective self-defence treaties......Page 316
A. Mutual assistance treaties......Page 317
B. Military alliances......Page 319
C. Treaties of guarantee......Page 322
A. The primacy of the Charter of the United Nations......Page 325
(a) Armed attack as a condition to collective self-defence......Page 326
(b) Is a request for assistance necessary?......Page 327
C. Other conditions for the exercise of collective self-defence......Page 329
V. The modalities of collective self-defence......Page 330
VI. The Gulf War and collective self-defence......Page 332
B. The Covenant of the League of Nations......Page 336
C. The Charter of the United Nations......Page 337
(a) The general discretion of the Security Council......Page 341
(i) The elasticity of the expression......Page 342
(ii) Threat to the peace, international terrorism and self-defence......Page 344
(iii) Threat to the peace in domestic situations......Page 346
A. The duties incumbent on United Nations Member States......Page 347
B. The responsibility of the Security Council......Page 348
A. The ‘Cold War’ era......Page 350
(a) The invasion and liberation of Kuwait (1990–1)......Page 352
(b) The cease-fire period (1991–2003)......Page 354
(c) The occupation of Iraq (2003)......Page 355
C. The post-‘Cold War’ era (other than the Gulf War)......Page 358
A. The absence of special agreements under Article 43......Page 361
B. Peacekeeping forces......Page 363
(a) The use of force by authorization of the Security Council......Page 366
(b) The role of NATO......Page 369
A. The General Assembly......Page 372
(a) Concurrent or consecutive competence of the Council and the Court......Page 375
(b) Can the Court invalidate binding decisions adopted by the Council?......Page 378
(c) Binding decisions of the Council and jus cogens......Page 381
Conclusion......Page 384
Index of persons......Page 388
Index of subjects......Page 396