Volcanoes and the Environment

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgments......Page 17
Introduction......Page 19
Distribution of volcanic activity: the plate tectonic framework......Page 20
Mid-ocean ridge volcanism (divergent boundary)......Page 23
Subduction zone volcanism......Page 24
Intraplate volcanism......Page 26
Large igneous provinces (LIPs)......Page 28
Composition of magmas......Page 29
Physical properties of magmas......Page 32
Melting mechanisms for magma generation......Page 33
Magma generation at mid-ocean ridges......Page 34
Magma generation at subduction zones......Page 35
Ascent of magma......Page 37
Mid-ocean ridges......Page 40
Subduction zones......Page 41
Intraplate hotspots......Page 42
Effusive volcanism......Page 43
Explosive volcanism......Page 49
Construction of volcanic edifices......Page 58
Submarine and subaerial rift structures......Page 59
Shield volcanoes......Page 60
Volcanic cones and composite volcanoes......Page 63
Calderas......Page 65
References......Page 67
Introduction......Page 73
Volcano hazards......Page 75
Direct volcano hazards......Page 77
Indirect volcano hazards......Page 82
Spatial and temporal scales of volcano hazards......Page 84
Global and historical perspective......Page 85
Coping with volcano hazards......Page 88
Hazards assessment, hazards-zonation maps, and long-term forecasts......Page 89
Volcano monitoring and short-term forecasts......Page 90
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985: A tragic failure in hazards mitigation......Page 92
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991: a volcanologic success story......Page 94
Lessons and trends......Page 97
References......Page 99
Introduction......Page 108
Magmas and magma chambers......Page 109
Eruptive processes......Page 112
Field studies......Page 114
Laboratory studies of volcanic rocks......Page 116
Scale and analogue modeling......Page 119
Theoretical modeling in volcanology......Page 122
Pre-eruptive models......Page 123
Eruptive models......Page 125
Magma chamber models......Page 126
Conduit models......Page 127
Volcano monitoring......Page 130
Geophysical and geodetic monitoring......Page 131
Geochemical methods......Page 132
Final remarks......Page 133
References......Page 134
The geological cycle......Page 139
Volcanic activity in the planetary system: causes and implications for Earth......Page 141
When did volcanic activity begin in Earth history?......Page 143
The role of volcanic activity in creating the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and life......Page 144
The modern plate tectonic system as a guide for recognizing the tectonic setting of ancient volcanic successions......Page 147
Reconstructing the tectonic setting of ancient volcanic successions: the phanerozoic record......Page 151
Precambrian volcanism and tectonic settings......Page 155
Volcanism, the magma cycle, and the growth of the continental crust......Page 160
Magmatic cycles......Page 162
Volcanism, tectonics, and global climate change......Page 163
Conclusions......Page 165
References......Page 166
In the beginning . . .......Page 170
The importance of volcanic sulfur emissions......Page 171
Climatic effects of volcanic aerosols......Page 173
Atmospheric effects of individual volcanic eruptions: from 1783 to 1982......Page 174
Assessing the atmospheric impact of past eruptions......Page 176
Mount Pinatubo......Page 177
Tambora......Page 180
The potential atmospheric effects of super-eruptions: Toba and flood basalt events......Page 181
The Toba super-eruption......Page 182
Flood basalt events and mass extinctions......Page 183
Conclusions and future studies......Page 186
References......Page 188
Biotopes of hyperthermophiles......Page 193
Terrestrial biotopes......Page 194
Marine biotopes......Page 197
Phylogeny of hyperthermophiles......Page 200
Taxonomy of hyperthermophiles......Page 202
Sampling and isolation of hyperthermophiles......Page 205
General metabolic potentialities......Page 207
Terrestrial hyperthermophiles......Page 208
Marine hyperthermophiles......Page 210
Distribution of species and complexity in hyperthermophilic ecosystems......Page 215
Basis of heat stability and the upper temperature limit for life......Page 217
Conclusions: hyperthermophiles in the history of life......Page 218
References......Page 219
Mass extinctions......Page 225
Lethal volcanism?......Page 226
Phase Two......Page 229
The Emeishan Basalts and the end-Maokouan mass extinction......Page 233
The Siberian Traps and the Permian–Triassic (P–T) mass extinction......Page 234
The Newark flood basalts and the Triassic–Jurassic (T–J) mass extinction......Page 236
Flood basalts but no extinctions in the Early Cretaceous......Page 237
Brito-Arctic flood basalts and the end-Paleocene extinction......Page 238
Summary......Page 239
References......Page 240
Primary impacts......Page 245
Factors affecting survival......Page 251
Influence of legacies......Page 255
Factors affecting plant recruitment......Page 257
Factors affecting plant survival......Page 259
Factors affecting the time to maturity of the vegetation......Page 260
Summary......Page 261
References......Page 262
Introduction......Page 268
Effects of tephra deposits on animals......Page 269
Effects of tephra on insects......Page 271
The question of animal survival after eruption......Page 274
The process of recolonization by animals......Page 275
Example 1: Rakata......Page 276
Example 3: the Canary Islands......Page 277
Example 6: Etna......Page 278
Recolonization in the blast zone at Mount St. Helens......Page 280
Later events in animal recolonization......Page 284
Consequences of human intervention in post-eruptive ecosystem restoration......Page 285
Tempo and pattern......Page 286
References......Page 287
Introduction......Page 291
Volcanoes at rest......Page 292
Masaya volcano, Nicaragua: the environmental effects of sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride......Page 293
Poás volcano, Costa Rica: degassing volcanoes with crater lakes......Page 295
Furnas volcano, San Miguel Island, Azores: ground gas emissions......Page 298
Lake Nyos, Cameroon: gas bursts from crater lakes......Page 300
Dieng Plateau, Java: gas bursts from hydrothermal systems......Page 302
Pyroclastic flows and surges......Page 303
Particle size......Page 306
Lahars......Page 307
Nevado del Ruiz, 1985......Page 308
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991......Page 309
Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat......Page 311
Galeras Volcano, Colombia, lava dome eruption in 1993: hazards to volcanologists......Page 312
Vesuvius,  AD  79 and 1631......Page 313
Health aspects of volcanic crisis management......Page 315
Risk assessment......Page 317
Final remarks......Page 318
References......Page 320
Introduction......Page 322
A primer on geothermal energy......Page 323
Reservoirs and uses of geothermal energy......Page 324
Magma reservoirs......Page 325
Hot-dry-rock reservoirs......Page 326
H2O-rich reservoirs......Page 327
Vapor-dominated reservoirs......Page 328
Warm-water reservoirs......Page 329
Normal-temperature reservoirs......Page 332
Geothermal resources......Page 333
Exploring for high-temperature geothermal resources......Page 334
The “when,” “how much,” “where,” and “what” of volcanism......Page 336
Calculation of subsurface temperature......Page 338
Other indirect probes into the subsurface......Page 339
Drilling and drilling......Page 340
The environmental factor......Page 341
Air quality......Page 342
Brines......Page 343
Hot springs and fumaroles......Page 344
Ground subsidence......Page 345
Sight and sound......Page 346
The environmental balance sheet......Page 347
Closing thoughts......Page 348
References......Page 349
Introduction, definitions, and classification......Page 351
Magmatic Ni–Cu (PGE) deposits......Page 352
Komatiitic Ore Types......Page 354
Massive ore......Page 355
Examples......Page 356
Composition......Page 359
Komatiitic flow emplacement and massive sulfide deposits......Page 361
Introduction and definition......Page 363
Characteristics......Page 364
Examples of LS and HS deposits......Page 368
Genesis......Page 369
Volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits......Page 373
Classification......Page 374
Tonnage and grade characteristics......Page 375
Deposit characteristics......Page 376
Volcanic environment characteristics......Page 383
Volcanic controls on VMS  deposit morphology and alteration......Page 386
Volcanic controls on deposit morphology......Page 387
Petrochemical characteristics......Page 384
Alteration characteristics......Page 385
Volcanic controls on proximal, discordant alteration......Page 389
Examples of flow-hosted VMS  deposits in flow-dominated successions......Page 393
Examples of volcaniclastic-hosted VMS  deposits......Page 394
Genetic models......Page 395
References......Page 398
Pumice and ash......Page 405
pumice-fall beds......Page 406
rhyolite and dacite flows and domes......Page 407
Abrasives......Page 409
Pozzolan......Page 410
Quarried tuff......Page 411
Perlite......Page 413
Scoria......Page 414
Quarrying......Page 415
Bentonites used for drilling muds, iron ore pelletizing and foundry sands......Page 417
cat litter......Page 418
References......Page 419
Introduction......Page 422
Perspectives from theodicy......Page 431
The dominant perspective......Page 433
Volcanic hazards: radical alternatives......Page 438
Volcanoes and people: an evolving framework of study......Page 439
Volcanoes and society: contemporary research agendas......Page 446
References......Page 451
Introduction......Page 458
Measuring the “cost” of disasters: current practices......Page 459
The benefits of volcanic activity......Page 461
Overall impacts......Page 462
Direct impacts......Page 464
Agriculture and livestock......Page 465
Damage to buildings and infrastructure......Page 468
Employment......Page 470
Investment......Page 471
The external sector......Page 473
Government budgetary aspects of volcanic eruptions......Page 474
Structural measures......Page 476
Hazard maps......Page 477
Evacuation......Page 479
Disaster insurance......Page 480
Conclusion......Page 481
References......Page 482
Index......Page 486