Veterinary histology of domestic mammals and birds : textbook and colour atlas

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1 The cell (cellula)
	Cell membrane (cytolemma, membrana cellularis)
	Cell membrane structure
		Lipid bilayer
		Membrane proteins
			Integral membrane proteins
			Peripheral membrane proteins
		Membrane polysaccharides
		Plasmalemma
	Cellular metabolism
		Mechanisms of substrate uptake
			Membrane transport
			Vesicular transport
				Endocytosis
					Pinocytosis
					Receptor-mediated endocytosis
					Phagocytosis
				Exocytosis
				Endosomal system
		Intracellular metabolism
			Cell matrix (cytosol)
			Lysosomes (lysosoma)
				Lysosome structure
			Peroxisomes (peroxisoma)
			Organelles of anabolism
				Ribosomes (ribosoma)
					Ribosome structure
				Endoplasmic reticulum (reticulum endoplasmaticum)
				Rough endoplasmic reticulum (reticulum endoplasmaticum granulosum)
				Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (reticulum endoplasmaticum nongranulosum)
			Organelles of protein modification and vesicular trafficking
				Golgi apparatus (complexus golgiensis)
				Membrane recycling
			Organelles of cellular respiration and energy production
				Mitochondria
				Number and distribution of mitochondria
	Cell contractility and motility
		Actin filaments (microfilaments)
		Microtubules
			Centriole (centriolum)
			Microtubule-organising centre (MTOC)
			Cilia
		Intermediate filaments
			Keratins (cytokeratins, tonofilaments)
			Vimentin and vimentin-like proteins
			Neurofilaments
			Lamin A and lamin B
	Exogenous and endogenous cellular inclusions
		Endogenous pigments
		Exogenous pigments
	Nucleus
		Number, size, shape and position
		Nuclear envelope (nucleolemma)
		Nucleoplasm (nucleoplasma)
			Chromatin (chromatinum)
				Euchromatin (euchromatinum)
				Heterochromatin (heterochromatinum)
			Nucleolus
	Cell growth and division
		Cell cycle
			Interphase
			Mitotic (M) phase: nuclear division (karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
				Prophase
				Metaphase
				Anaphase
				Telophase
				Cytokinesis
			Endomitosis
			Amitosis
		Meiosis
			Meiosis I (reductional division)
			Meiosis II (equatorial division)
		Cell death
	Cell surface specialisations
		Apical surface specialisations
			Microvilli
			Cilia (kinocilia)
			Stereocilia
		Lateral surface specialisations
			Direct contacts
			Indirect contacts
				Zonula occludens (tight junction)
				Zonula adherens and desmosome (macula adherens)
				Gap junction (nexus)
		Basal surface specialisations
			Focal adhesions
			Hemidesmosomes
			Basement membrane (membrana basalis)
				Lamina lucida
				Lamina basalis
				Lamina fibroreticularis
2 Epithelial tissue (textus epithelialis)
	Histogenesis
	Classification
	Surface epithelium (epithelium superficiale)
		Single-layered epithelium (epithelium simplex)
			Simple squamous epithelium (epithelium simplex squamosum)
			Simple cuboidal epithelium (epithelium simplex cuboideum)
			Simple columnar epithelium (epithelium simplex columnare)
			Pseudostratified epithelium (epithelium pseudostratificatum)
		Multi-layered (stratified) epithelium (epithelium stratificatum)
			Stratified cuboidal or columnar epithelium (epithelium stratificatum cuboideum/columnare)
			Stratified squamous epithelium (epithelium stratificatum squamosum)
				Non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium (epithelium stratificatum squamosum noncornificatum)
				Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium (epithelium stratificatum squamosum cornificatum)
			Transitional epithelium (epithelium transitionale)
		Glandular epithelium (epithelium glandulare)
			Endocrine glands (glandulae endocrinae)
			Exocrine glands (glandulae exocrinae)
				Intra-epithelial glands (glandulae intraepitheliales)
				Extra-epithelial glands (glandulae exoepitheliales)
					Shape of the secretory unit
					Structure of the ducts
					Mode of secretion
				Chemical composition of the secretion
3 Connective and supportive tissues (textus connectivus)
	Structure of connective and supportive tissues
		Cells
			Resident cells
			Transient cells
		Intercellular matrix (substantia intercellularis)
			Connective tissue fibres
				Collagen fibres (fibra collagenosa)
				Reticular fibres (fibra reticularis)
				Elastic fibres (fibra elastica)
			Ground substance
	Types of connective tissue
		Embryonic connective tissue (textus connectivus embryonalis)
		Reticular connective tissue (textus connectivus reticularis)
		Lymphoreticular connective tissue (textus connectivus lymphoreticularis)
		Haemoreticular connective tissue (textus connectivus haemopoeticus)
		Adipose tissue (textus adiposus)
			Pluri- or multilocular adipose tissue (textus adiposus fuscus)
			Unilocular adipose tissue (textus adiposus albus)
		Connective tissue proper (textus connectivus collagenosus)
			Loose connective tissue (textus connectivus collagenosus laxus)
			Dense connective tissue (textus connectivus collagenosus compactus)
				Dense irregular connective tissue
				Dense regular connective tissue
	Types of supportive tissue
		Cartilage (textus cartilagineus)
			Hyaline cartilage (cartilago hyalina)
			Elastic cartilage (cartilago elastica)
			Fibrocartilage (cartilago fibrosa)
		Bone (textus osseus)
			Bone cells
				Osteoprogenitor cells
				Osteoblast (osteoblastus)
				Bone-lining cells
				Osteocyte (osteocytus)
				Osteoclast (osteoclastus)
			Bone matrix
				Organic component (collagen fibres and ground substance)
				Inorganic component (minerals)
			Types of bone
				Woven bone (os membranaceum reticulofibrosum)
				Lamellar bone (os membranaceum lamellosum)
			New bone formation (osteogenesis)
				Intramembranous ossification
				Endochondral ossification
4 Muscle tissue (textus muscularis)
	Smooth muscle (textus muscularis nonstriatus)
		Fine structure of smooth muscle cells (myocytus nonstriatus)
		Muscle contraction
	Striated muscle (textus muscularis striatus)
		Skeletal muscle (textus muscularis striatus skeletalis)
			Fine structure of skeletal muscle cells (myocytus striatus skeletalis)
				Sarcoplasm
				Sarcoplasmic reticulum
				Transverse tubular system
			Muscle contraction
			Fibre types
			Satellite cells
			Innervation
			Connective tissue associated with skeletal muscle
			Microvasculature
		Cardiac muscle (textus muscularis striatus cardiacus)
			Structure of cardiac muscle
				Fine structure of cardiac muscle (myocytus striatus cardiacus)
				Sarcoplasm
				Sarcoplasmic reticulum
			Impulse generation and conduction pathways
5 Nervous tissue (textus nervosus)
	Nerve cells (neuron, neurocytus)
		Classification of nerve cells
			Unipolar neurons
			Bipolar neurons
			Pseudo-unipolar neurons
			Multipolar neurons
		Neuronal structure
			Perikaryon
			Nerve cell processes
				Dendrites
				Axons
		Energy supply and axonal transport
		Synapse
			Structure of a chemical synapse
			Function of the chemical synapse
			Neuromuscular synapse (motor end plate)
		Nerve fibre (neurofibra)
			Myelinated nerve fibres
				Formation of the myelin sheath
					Myelination of peripheral nerve fibres
					Myelination of central nerve fibres
				Composition of the myelin sheath
			Unmyelinated nerve fibres
			Generation and conduction of nerve stimuli
		Nerves
			Nervous tissue investments
			Regeneration of nervous tissue
	Glial cells (neuroglia, gliocytus)
		Glial cells of the central nervous system
			Ependymal cells (ependymocytus)
			Astrocytes (astrocytus)
				Protoplasmic astrocytes (astrocytus protoplasmaticus)
				Fibrous astrocytes (astrocytus fibrosus)
			Oligodendrocytes (oligodendrocytus)
			Microglia (Hortega cells)
		Glial cells of the peripheral nervous system
			Schwann cell (neurolemmocyte)
			Satellite cell (amphicyte, gliocytus ganglii)
6 Circulatory system (systema cardiovasculare et Iymphovasculare)
	Cardiovascular system (systema cardiovasculare)
		Capillaries (vas capillare)
			Continuous capillaries
			Fenestrated capillaries
			Sinusoidal capillaries (vas capillare sinusoideum)
		Blood vessels
			Structure
			Innervation
			Nutritional blood supply
			Arteries (arteria)
				Elastic arteries (arteria elastotypica)
				Muscular arteries (arteria myotypica)
			Arterioles (arteriolae)
			Veins (vena)
			Venules (venula)
			Arteriovenous specialisations
		Heart (cor)
			The conducting system of the heart
	Lymph vessels (systema lymphovasculare)
		Lymph capillaries (vas lymphocapillare)
		Collecting ducts (vas lymphaticum myotypicum)
		Lymph heart of birds (cor lymphaticum)
		Lymphoreticular formations of birds
7 Blood and haemopoiesis (sanguis et haemocytopoesis)
	Formation of blood cells (haemopoiesis)
		Regulation of blood formation
		Bone marrow
	Blood cell differentiation
		Haemopoietic stem cells
		Progenitor cells
		Species variation
	Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
		Development of red blood cells (erythropoiesis)
		Erythrocytes
	White blood cells (leucocytes)
		Granulocytes (granulocytus)
			Development of white blood cells (granulopoiesis)
			Neutrophils (granulocytus neutrophilicus)
			Eosinophils (granulocytus eosinophilicus)
			Basophils (granulocytus basophilicus)
		Agranulocytes
			Lymphocytes
				Lymphocyte formation (lymphopoiesis)
				Lymphocyte morphology and function
				T lymphocytes (T cells)
				B lymphocytes
			Monocytes
				Development of monocytes (monocytopoiesis)
				Monocyte morphology and function
	Platelets (thrombocytes)
		Development of platelets (thrombopoiesis)
		Platelet structure and function
		Blood clot formation
8 Immune system and lymphatic organs (organa Iymphopoetica)
	Immune system
		Principles of adaptive immunity
		Cells of the adaptive immune response
			T cells
				CD4+ lymphocytes
				CD8+ lymphocytes
			B cells
			Immune response to antigens
		Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins
			MHC class I proteins
			MHC class II proteins
			MHC class III proteins
		Antigen-presenting cells
			Macrophages
			Non-follicular dendritic cells
			Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs)
			B cells
		Elimination of antigens
	Lymphatic organs (organa lymphopoetica)
		Thymus
			Cortex
			Medulla
				Differentiation of T lymphocytes
			Thymic involution
		Bone marrow
		Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)
			Lymphoid follicles
			Tonsils and Peyer’s patches
		Lymph nodes (nodi lymphatici)
			Vessels and sinuses
		Species variation
		Spleen (lien)
			Structure of the spleen
			Splenic parenchyma and blood vessels
		Lymphatic organs of birds
			Lymph nodes
			Cloacal bursa (bursa cloacalis, bursa Fabricii)
			Spleen
9 Endocrine system (systema endocrinum)
	Hypothalamo-hypophyseal system
		Hypothalamus
		Hypophysis cerebri (pituitary gland)
			Adenohypophysis
				Pars distalis
					Chromophobic cells (endocrinocytus chromophobus)
					Chromophilic cells (endocrinocytus chromophilus)
				Pars tuberalis
				Pars intermedia
			Neurohypophysis
	Pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri)
		Species variation
	Thyroid gland (glandula thyroidea)
		Structure of the thyroid gland
			Follicular cells (endocrinocytus follicularis)
			C cells (cellula parafollicularis)
		Species variation
	Parathyroid gland (glandula parathyroidea)
	Adrenal gland (glandula suprarenalis)
		Species variation
		Adrenal cortex (cortex glandulae suprarenalis)
			Zona arcuata/glomerulosa
			Zona fasciculata
			Zona reticularis
		Adrenal medulla (medulla glandulae suprarenalis)
			Innervation
	Paraganglia
	Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans, insulae pancreaticae)
	Enteroendocrine system
	Additional endocrine cells
10 Digestive system (apparatus digestorius)
	Oral cavity (cavum oris)
		Lip (labium)
		Cheek (bucca)
		Palate (palatum)
			Hard palate (palatum durum)
			Soft palate (palatum molle, velum palatinum)
		Species variation
		Tongue (lingua)
		Species variation
			Lingual papillae
				Mechanical papillae
				Gustatory papillae
			Innervation and blood supply of the tongue
		Tooth (dens)
			Enamel (enamelum)
			Dentin (dentinum)
			Dental pulp (pulpa coronalis)
			Attachment apparatus of the teeth
				Cementum
				Periodontal ligament
				Alveolar bone
		Salivary glands (glandulae oris)
			Salivary gland structure
			Parotid salivary gland
			Mandibular salivary gland
			Sublingual salivary glands
		Species variation
	Pharynx
	Tubular digestive organs
		Structure of tubular digestive organs
			Tunica mucosa
			Tela submucosa
			Tunica muscularis
			Tunica adventitia
			Tunica serosa
		Oesophagus
		Species variation
		Stomach (gaster, ventriculus)
			Glandular stomach (pars glandularis)
				Cardiac glands
				Proper gastric (fundic) glands
					Isthmus
					Neck
					Body and fundus
				Pyloric glands (glandulae pyloricae)
				Gastric mucus
				Gastric juice
					Regulation of gastric juice production
			Ruminant forestomach
				Reticulum
				Rumen
				Omasum
				Omaso-abomasal junction
			Avian stomach
				Glandular stomach (proventriculus, pars glandularis)
				Muscular stomach (ventriculus, pars muscularis)
		Small intestine (intestinum tenue)
			Tunica mucosa
				Mucosal epithelium (epithelium mucosae)
					Enterocytes
					Goblet cells
					Endocrine cells
					Paneth cells
				Lamina propria mucosae
			Species variation
				Lamina muscularis mucosae
				Innate and adaptive protective mechanisms of the intestinal mucosa
			Tela submucosa
			Tunica muscularis and tunica serosa
			Distinguishing features of segments of the small intestine
				Duodenum
				Jejunum
				Ileum
		Large intestine (intestinum crassum)
			Tunica mucosa
			Tela submucosa
			Tunica muscularis
			Distinguishing features of segments of the large intestine
				Caecum
				Colon
				Rectum
		Anal canal (canalis analis)
		Avian intestine
		Cloaca
	Glands associated with the intestine
		Liver (hepar)
			Structure of the liver
				Vessels of the liver
				Liver lobule (lobulus hepaticus)
				Liver sinusoid (vas sinusoideum)
				Wall of sinusoid
					Kupffer cells (macrophagocyti stellati)
				Perisinusoidal space (spatium perisinusoideum)
				Ito cells
			Hepatocyte (hepatocytus)
			Bile ducts
		Species variation
		Gall bladder (vesica biliaris, vesica fellea)
		Pancreas
		Species variation
11 Respiratory system (apparatus respiratorius)
	Conducting airways
		Structure of the conducting airways
		Segments of the conducting airways
		Nasal cavity (cavum nasi)
			Nasal vestibule
		Species variation
			Respiratory region
			Olfactory region
		Species variation
		Paranasal sinuses (sinus paranasales)
		Vomeronasal organ (organum vomeronasale)
		Pharynx
		Larynx
			Epiglottis
		Species variation
		Trachea
		Species variation
		Species variation
		Lung (pulmo)
			Bronchi
			Bronchioles (bronchioli veri, bronchioli terminales)
		Species variation
	Gas exchange interface
		Respiratory bronchioles
		Alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
		Alveoli (alveoli pulmonis)
			Blood–air barrier
		Bronchial system and gas exchange in birds
			Air sacs (sacci pneumatici, sacci aerophori)
12 Urinary system (organa urinaria)
	Kidney (ren)
		Macroscopic structure of the kidney
		Species variation
		Vascular supply and innervation
			Blood vessels
		Species variation
			Lymph vessels
			Nerves
		Microscopic structure of the nephron and collecting duct system
		Species variation
		Renal corpuscle (corpusculum renale) and ultrafiltration
		Species variation
		Species variation
			Capillary tuft (glomerulus)
				Endothelial cells
				Basement membrane (membrana basalis)
			Bowman’s capsule
				Visceral layer (podocytes, podocyti)
				Parietal layer and urinary space (lumen capsulae)
			Mesangium
			Glomerular filtration apparatus (blood–urine barrier)
		Tubules of the nephron
		Species variation
			Proximal convoluted tubule
		Species variation
			Proximal straight tubule
		Species variation
			Thin limb of loop of Henle
		Species variation
			Distal straight tubule and distal convoluted tubule
		Collecting duct system
		Juxtaglomerular apparatus (complexus juxtaglomerularis)
			Macula densa
			Juxtaglomerular cells
			Extraglomerular mesangial cells
			Interstitium
	Urinary passages
		Renal pelvis (pelvis renalis)
		Species variation
		Species variation
		Ureter
		Species variation
		Species variation
		Species variation
		Bladder (vesica urinaria)
		Species variation
		Urethra
			Female urethra
		Species variation
			Male urethra
		Species variation
13 Male reproductive system (organa genitalia masculina)
	Testis
		Stroma
			Interstitial cells (Leydig cells)
		Species variation
		Parenchyma
			Convoluted seminiferous tubules (tubuli seminiferi convoluti)
				Spermatogenic cells (cellulae spermatogenicae)
				Spermatogenesis
					Spermatocytogenesis
					Spermiogenesis
					Cyclic events of spermatogenesis
				Sustentacular cells (Sertoli cells, epitheliocyti sustentantes)
				Functions of sustentacular cells
			Straight testicular tubules (tubuli seminiferi recti)
			Rete testis
			Ductuli efferentes testis
		Testis of birds
	Epididymis
		Epididymal duct (ductus epididymidis)
		Species variation
			Pampiniform plexus
		Epididymis of birds
	Ductus deferens
		Species variation
		Ductus deferens of birds
	Accessory glands (glandulae genitales accessoriae)
		Pars glandularis of the ductus deferens
		Vesicular glands (glandula vesicularis)
		Species variation
		Prostate gland (glandula prostatica)
		Species variation
		Bulbourethral gland (glandula bulbourethralis)
		Species variation
	Urethra
	Penis
		Species variation
		Prepuce (praeputium)
		Species variation
		Penis of birds
			Accessory structures of the phallus
14 Female reproductive system (organa genitalia feminina)
	Ovary (ovar, ovarium)
		Structure of the ovary
		Species variation
			Cortex (cortex ovarii, zona parenchymatosa)
				Ovarian follicle
					Primordial and primary follicles
					Secondary follicles
		Species variation
			Tertiary follicles
			Mature follicles
			Follicular atresia
			Ovulation
			Corpus luteum
				Formation of the corpus luteum
		Species variation
			Regression of the corpus luteum
		Medulla (medulla ovarii, zona vasculosa)
		Species variation
			Ovary of birds
			Oogenesis
	Uterine tube (tuba uterina)
		Structure of the uterine tube
			Tunica mucosa
			Tunica muscularis
			Tela subserosa and tunica serosa
	Uterus
		Structure of the uterus
			Endometrium
		Species variation
			Myometrium
			Perimetrium
		Cervix (cervix uteri)
		Species variation
	Vagina
		Structure of the vagina
			Tunica mucosa
		Species variation
			Tunica muscularis
			Tunica serosa and tunica adventitia
	Vulva
		Species variation
		Species variation
	Oestrous cycle
		Cyclic changes in the ovary
		Hormonal effects on the uterine tubes
		Cyclic changes in the uterus
	Oviduct of birds
		Structure
			Infundibulum
			Magnum
			Isthmus
			Uterus
			Vagina
15 Common integument (integumentum commune)
	Structure of the skin
	Skin as a protective organ
		Epidermis
		Dermis (corium)
			Papillary layer (stratum papillare)
			Reticular layer (stratum reticulare)
		Hypodermis (subcutis)
		Skin glands (glandulae cutis)
			Sweat glands (glandulae sudoriferi)
			Sebaceous glands (glandulae sebaceae)
		Pigmentation
	Skin as an organ of thermoregulation
		Vessels of the skin
		Hair (pili) and hair follicles
			Hair structure
			Root sheath structure
				Epithelial root sheath
				Dermal root sheath
			Types of hair
				Sinus hair (pilus tactilis)
		Species variation
	Skin as a sensory organ
	Skin as an immunological barrier
	Skin modifications
		Mammary gland (udder, mamma, glandula mammaria)
			Structure of lactating mammary gland
				Alveoli (acini)
				Ducts (ductus lactiferi)
				Lactiferous sinus (sinus lactifer)
				Interstitium of the lactating mammary gland
			Structure of the quiescent mammary gland
			Hormonal regulation of the mammary gland
			Sructure of the teat (papilla mammae)
		Digital organs and horn
			Equine hoof (ungula)
			Ruminant and swine hoof (ungula)
			Claw (unguicula)
			Horn
	Skin of birds
		Featherless body regions
			Skin glands
		Feathered body regions
			Feathers
				Feather structure
16 Receptors and sense organs (organa sensuum)
	Exteroreceptors
		Free nerve endings
		Simple receptors
		Lamellar receptors
	Proprioceptors
		Golgi tendon organ
		Muscle spindle
	Enteroreceptors
	Gustatory organs (organa gustus)
		Taste buds
	Olfactory organs (organa olfactus)
	Eye (organum visus)
		Bulb (bulbus oculi)
			Structure
			Fibrous tunic (tunica fibrosa or externa bulbi)
				Sclera
				Cornea
		Species variation
		Species variation
			Vascular tunic (uvea, tunica vasculosa or media bulbi)
				Choroid (choroidea)
		Species variation
			Ciliary body (corpus ciliare)
		Species variation
			Iris
		Species variation
			Innervation of the iris and ciliary body
			Neural tunic (retina, tunica interna bulbi)
				Retinal pigment epithelium (stratum pigmentosum retinae)
				Neurosensory retina (stratum nervosum retinae)
				Nutritional support of the retina
				Neurosensory retina of birds
				Optic nerve (nervus opticus)
		Species variation
			Internal structures of the bulb
				Lens
		Species variation
			Vitreous body (corpus vitreum)
		Species variation
			Anterior and posterior chambers
		Species variation
		Accessory organs of the eye
			Eyelids (palpebrae)
			Upper and lower eyelids (palpebra superior et inferior)
		Species variation
			Tarsal plate (tarsus)
		Species variation
			Third eyelid (nictitating membrane, palpebra tertia)
		Species variation
			Lacrimal apparatus (apparatus lacrimalis)
		Species variation
	Ear (organum vestibulocochleare)
		External ear (auris externa)
			Pinna (auricle, auricula)
			External acoustic meatus (meatus acusticus externus)
			Tympanic membrane (membrana tympani)
		Species variation
		Middle ear (auris media)
		Species variation
		Internal ear (auris interna)
			Vestibular apparatus (pars statica labyrinthi, labyrinthus vestibularis)
				Sacculus and utriculus
				Semicircular ducts (ductus semicirculares)
			Auditory apparatus (pars auditiva labyrinthi, labyrinthus cochlearis)
				Cochlear duct (ductus cochlearis)
				Spiral organ (organum spirale, organ of Corti)
		Species variation
17 Nervous system (systema nervosum)
	Divisions of the nervous system
	Central nervous system (pars centralis, systema nervosum centrale)
		Spinal cord (medulla spinalis)
			Grey matter (substantia grisea)
			White matter (substantia alba)
		Cerebellum
			Molecular layer
			Purkinje cell layer
			Granule cell layer
		Cerebrum
			Cerebral cortex (cortex cerebri)
			Cerebral white matter (corpus medullare cerebri)
	Peripheral nervous system (pars peripherica, systema nervosum periphericum)
		Sensory ganglia
		Autonomic ganglia
	Meninges
		Pachymeninx (dura mater)
		Leptomeninges
	Ventricles (ventriculi)
Bibliography
Index