Vertebrate life

Cover......Page 1
Vertebrate Life......Page 2
Brief Contents......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 16
 1.1 The Vertebrate Story......Page 22
  Non-amniotes......Page 23
  Amniotes......Page 25
  Phylogenetic systematics......Page 26
  Applying phylogenetic criteria......Page 27
  Morphology-based and molecular-based phylogenies......Page 28
  Using phylogenetic trees......Page 29
 1.4 Genetic Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change......Page 30
  Phenotypes and fitness......Page 31
  Developmental regulatory genes......Page 32
 1.5 Earth History and Vertebrate Evolution......Page 35
 2.1 Vertebrates in Relation to Other Animals......Page 40
 2.2 Characteristics of Chordates......Page 41
  Extant nonvertebrate chordates......Page 42
 2.3 What Distinguishes a Vertebrate?......Page 44
  Development of the body......Page 45
  Development of the pharyngeal region......Page 46
  Unique developmental features of vertebrates......Page 48
 2.5 Basic Vertebrate Structures......Page 50
  The skeletomuscular system......Page 51
  The alimentary system......Page 53
  The cardiovascular system......Page 54
  The sense organs......Page 56
 3.1 The Earliest Evidence of Vertebrates......Page 62
  The origin of bone and other mineralized tissues......Page 63
  The environment of early vertebrate evolution......Page 64
  Extant hagfishes: Myxiniformes......Page 67
  Lampreys: Petromyzontiformes......Page 69
  Cyclostomes and humans......Page 70
  Ostracoderm evolutionary patterns......Page 71
  Gnathostome biology......Page 72
  Early hypotheses of jaw origins......Page 73
  Developmental studies of extant vertebrates......Page 76
  Fin development and the lateral somitic frontier......Page 77
  Origin of the neck region......Page 78
  Placoderms: Armored fishes......Page 79
  Acanthodians......Page 81
  The surviving gnathostome groups......Page 82
  Obtaining oxygen from water: Gills......Page 86
  Obtaining oxygen from air: Lungs and other respiratory structures......Page 87
  Adjusting buoyancy......Page 88
  Hearing......Page 90
  Detecting water displacement......Page 91
  Electroreception by sharks and rays......Page 93
 4.3 The Internal Environment of Vertebrates......Page 95
  The vertebrate kidney......Page 96
  Marine vertebrates......Page 97
  Freshwater vertebrates: Teleosts and amphibians......Page 99
  Euryhaline vertebrates......Page 100
  Terrestrial vertebrates......Page 101
 5.1 Shifting Continents and Changing Climates......Page 104
 5.2 Continental Geography of the Paleozoic......Page 105
 5.3 Paleozoic Climates......Page 106
  Aquatic life......Page 107
  Terrestrial floral ecosystems......Page 109
  Terrestrial faunal ecosystems......Page 110
 5.5 Paleozoic Extinctions......Page 111
  Distinctive characters of chondrichthyans......Page 116
  Paleozoic chondrichthyan radiations......Page 119
  The Mesozoic chondrichthyan radiation......Page 121
  Paleozoic and Mesozoic chondrichthyan paleobiology......Page 122
  Jaws......Page 124
  Skin......Page 125
  Sensory systems and prey detection......Page 127
  Ecology of sharks......Page 129
  Feeding......Page 130
  Reproduction......Page 131
  Ecology......Page 133
 7.4 Chimaeras (Holocephali)......Page 134
 7.5 Declining Shark Populations:  An Ecological Crisis......Page 135
 8.1 The Origin of Bony Fishes......Page 142
  Earliest osteichthyans and the major groups  of bony fishes......Page 144
  Neopterygii......Page 146
  Evolution of jaw protrusion......Page 147
  Pharyngeal jaws......Page 148
 8.3 Evolution of Sarcopterygii......Page 149
  Dipnoi......Page 150
  Tetrapodomorpha......Page 151
  Non-teleosts......Page 154
  Teleosts......Page 155
 9.2 Swimming......Page 160
  Steering, stopping, and staying in place......Page 162
  Oviparity......Page 163
  Viviparity......Page 164
  Protandry......Page 165
  Protogyny......Page 166
  Hermaphroditism......Page 167
  Deep-sea fishes......Page 168
  Warm muscles......Page 173
  Hot eyes......Page 174
  Actinistians: Coelacanths......Page 175
  Freshwater fishes......Page 176
  Marine fishes......Page 177
  Tetrapodomorph fishes......Page 182
  Earliest tetrapods of the Late Devonian......Page 184
  Terrestrial and walking fishes today......Page 186
  How are fins made into limbs?......Page 187
  Body support and locomotion......Page 188
  Lung ventilation and dermal bone......Page 189
 10.3 Radiation and Diversity of Non-Amniote Tetrapods......Page 190
 10.4 Amniotes......Page 193
  Derived features of amniotes......Page 194
  The amniotic egg......Page 195
  Patterns of amniote temporal fenestration......Page 196
  Salamanders......Page 202
  Anurans......Page 205
 11.2 Life Histories of Amphibians......Page 209
  Salamanders......Page 210
  Anurans......Page 212
  The ecology of tadpoles......Page 217
  Caecilians......Page 218
  Cutaneous respiration......Page 219
  Cutaneous permeability to water......Page 220
  Behavioral control of evaporative water loss......Page 222
  Skin glands......Page 223
  Toxicity and diet......Page 224
  Venomous amphibians......Page 225
  Disease......Page 226
  Synergisms......Page 227
  The skeleton......Page 232
  The axial skeleton: Vertebrae and ribs......Page 233
  Axial muscles......Page 234
  The appendicular skeleton: limbs and limb girdles......Page 236
  Locomotion......Page 238
 12.2 Eating on Land......Page 240
 12.4 Pumping Blood Uphill......Page 241
  Vision......Page 243
  Hearing......Page 245
  Olfaction......Page 246
 12.6 Conserving Water in a Dry Environment......Page 247
  Ectothermy......Page 248
  Ectothermy, endothermy, and heterothermy......Page 249
 13.2 Mesozoic Climates......Page 254
 13.3 Mesozoic Aquatic Life......Page 255
  The Triassic......Page 256
  The Cretaceous......Page 257
 13.5 Mesozoic Extinctions......Page 259
 14.1 The Conflict between Locomotion and Respiration......Page 262
  Locomotion and lung ventilation of synapsids......Page 263
 14.2 Limb-Powered Locomotion......Page 264
  The synapsid ankle joint......Page 266
 14.3 Increasing Gas Exchange......Page 268
  Why are synapsid and sauropsid lungs so different?......Page 269
 14.4 Transporting Oxygen to the Muscles:  The Heart......Page 271
  How did endothermy evolve?......Page 274
  When did endothermy evolve?......Page 275
 14.6 Getting Rid of Wastes: The Kidneys......Page 276
  Nitrogen excretion by synapsids: The mammalian kidney......Page 277
  Nitrogen excretion by sauropsids: Renal and extrarenal routes......Page 281
  Chemosensation: Gustation and olfaction......Page 284
  Brains......Page 285
 15.2 Dealing with Dryness: Ectotherms in Deserts......Page 290
  Desert tortoises......Page 291
  The chuckwalla......Page 292
  Desert amphibians......Page 295
  Frigid fishes......Page 296
  Frozen frogs......Page 297
  Body size......Page 298
  Body shape......Page 299
 15.5  The Role of Ectotherms in Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 300
  Shell and skeleton......Page 304
  Families of extant turtles......Page 306
  Lung ventilation......Page 308
  The heart......Page 309
  Moisture and egg development......Page 310
  Temperature-dependent sex determination......Page 311
  Hatching and the behavior of baby turtles......Page 312
 16.5 Navigation and Migrations......Page 314
  Navigation by adult turtles......Page 315
 16.6 The Fateful Life-History Characteristics of Turtles......Page 316
 17.1 Rhynchocephalians and the Biology  of Tuatara......Page 322
  Lizards......Page 324
  Snakes......Page 327
 17.3 Foraging Modes......Page 329
  Correlates of foraging mode......Page 330
 17.5 Feeding Specializations of Snakes......Page 333
  Venom and fangs......Page 335
  Crypsis......Page 336
  Deterrence......Page 337
  Venomous and poisonous snakes......Page 338
  Territoriality......Page 339
  Oviparity and viviparity......Page 341
  Parental care......Page 342
  Organismal performance and temperature......Page 343
 17.10 Lepidosaurs and Climate Change......Page 344
 18.1 Diversity of Extant Crocodylians......Page 350
  Notosuchia......Page 352
  Neosuchia......Page 353
 18.3 Predatory Behavior and Diet of Extant Crocodylians......Page 354
 18.4 Communication and Social Behavior......Page 356
  Parental care......Page 357
 18.6 The Skin Trade......Page 358
 19.2 Diversity of Mesozoic Diapsids......Page 364
  Marine lepidosauromorphs......Page 367
  The structure of pterosaurs......Page 370
 19.6 Triassic Faunal Turnover......Page 373
  Hips and legs......Page 374
  Dinosaur lineages......Page 375
  Thyreophora......Page 376
  Marginocephalia......Page 378
  Social behavior of ornithischian dinosaurs......Page 379
  The structure of sauropods......Page 381
  Nesting and parental care by sauropods......Page 383
  Ornithomimisauria......Page 384
  Maniraptora......Page 385
  Nesting and parental care by theropods......Page 386
 19.11 Gigantothermy and the Body Temperature  of Dinosaurs......Page 387
 20.1 Balancing Heat Production with Heat Loss......Page 392
  Insulation......Page 393
 20.2 Endotherms in the Cold......Page 394
  Avoiding cold and sharing heat......Page 395
  Rest-phase hypothermia......Page 396
  Hibernation......Page 397
 20.4 Endotherms in the Heat......Page 399
  Strategies for desert survival......Page 400
  Avoidance......Page 401
  Relaxation of homeostasis by hyperthermia......Page 402
  Hypothermia in the desert......Page 404
  Skeletal characters......Page 408
  Feathers......Page 409
  Reproduction and parental care......Page 411
  Body size......Page 412
  How—and why—birds got off the ground......Page 413
  The appearance of powered avian flight......Page 414
 21.4 The Mesozoic Radiations of Birds......Page 415
 22.1 The Structure of Birds: Specialization  for Flight......Page 420
  Feathers......Page 422
  Skeleton......Page 424
 22.2 Wings and Flight......Page 425
  Wing muscles......Page 427
  Wing shape and flight characteristics......Page 428
  Hopping, walking, and running......Page 429
  Swimming......Page 430
  Beaks, skulls, and tongues......Page 431
  The digestive system......Page 434
 22.5 Sensory Systems......Page 435
  Vision......Page 436
  Olfaction......Page 437
  Plumage colors and patterns......Page 438
  Vocalization, sonation, and visual displays......Page 440
  Egg biology......Page 442
  Maternal control of sex of offspring......Page 443
  Incubation......Page 444
  Brood parasitism......Page 446
 22.10 Orientation and Navigation......Page 447
  Costs and benefits of migration......Page 448
 22.12 Birds and Urbanization......Page 449
  Not so sexy in the city......Page 450
 23.1 Continental Geography of the Cenozoic......Page 456
  Paleogene and Neogene climates......Page 457
  The Pleistocene ice ages......Page 459
 23.3 Cenozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 460
  The isolation of Australian mammals......Page 462
  The isolation of mammals on other continents......Page 465
 23.5 Cenozoic Extinctions......Page 467
 24.2 The Diversity of Non-Mammalian Synapsids......Page 472
  Pelycosaurs: Basal non-mammalian synapsids......Page 473
  Therapsids: More derived non-mammalian synapsids......Page 477
  Therapsid diversity......Page 480
 24.3 Evolutionary Trends in Synapsids......Page 481
  Evolution of jaws and ears......Page 483
 24.4 The First Mammals......Page 486
  Skeletomuscular system......Page 487
  Feeding and mastication......Page 488
  Brain, senses, and behavior......Page 489
  The integument: Epidermis and glands......Page 490
  Lactation and suckling......Page 492
  Facial musculature......Page 493
  Internal anatomy......Page 494
  Dual radiations of Mesozoic mammals......Page 495
 25.1 Major Lineages of Mammals......Page 502
  Monotremes......Page 503
  Marsupials......Page 506
  Placentals......Page 508
  Craniodental features......Page 512
  Postcranial skeletal features......Page 513
  Gait and locomotion......Page 514
  Vision......Page 515
  Information from the genes......Page 516
 25.3 Differences between Marsupials and Placentals......Page 517
 25.4 Mammalian Reproduction......Page 518
  Genitalia......Page 519
  Reproductive mode of monotremes: Matrotrophic oviparity......Page 520
  Reproductive mode of therians: Matrotrophic viviparity......Page 521
  The earliest therian condition, and the discredited notion of placental superiority......Page 523
  Differences between carnivorous and herbivorous mammals......Page 524
  Rodents: Specialized feeders......Page 526
  Cursorial limb morphology......Page 527
  Fossorial limb morphology......Page 528
  Morphological adaptations for life in water......Page 529
  The evolution of cetaceans......Page 530
 25.8 Trophy Hunting......Page 534
  Endangering the endangered: The effect of perceived rarity......Page 535
  The extinction vortex......Page 536
  Evolutionary trends and diversity in primates......Page 540
 26.2 Origin and Evolution of Hominoidea......Page 547
  Diversity and social behavior of extant apes......Page 548
  Diversity of fossil hominoids......Page 552
  Early hominins......Page 554
  Homo erectus and Homo ergaster......Page 558
  Homo floresiensis......Page 560
  Precursors of Homo sapiens......Page 561
  The Neandertals......Page 562
  Origins of modern humans......Page 563
  Bipedalism......Page 564
  Large brains......Page 565
  Loss of body hair and development of skin pigmentation......Page 566
 26.6 Why Is Homo sapiens the Only Surviving Hominin Species?......Page 567
  Humans as superpredators and environmental disruptors......Page 568
  Megafaunal extinctions......Page 569
  Is this the Anthropocene?......Page 570
Appendix......Page 574
Glossary......Page 576
Illustration Credits......Page 584
Index......Page 590