Vermicomposting for Sustainable Food Systems in Africa

Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Science of Vermicomposting
	Chapter 1: A Decade of Vermicomposting Research at the University of Fort Hare: Selected Insights
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Optimization of the Vermi-degradation Process
			1.2.1 Optimizing the C: N Ratio
			1.2.2 Optimizing the Sanitization of Vermicomposts
		1.3 Optimizing Earthworm Stocking Density in Vermicomposting
			1.3.1 Optimizing Vermicomposting Through Incorporation of Inorganic Amendments
				1.3.1.1 Rock Phosphate
				1.3.1.2 Fly Ash
			1.3.2 Optimizing Vermicomposting Through Incorporation of Microbial Inoculants
				1.3.2.1 Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria
			1.3.3 Degradation of Antibiotic Residues
		1.4 Vermicomposts and Plant Nutrition
		1.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 2: State-of-the-Art and New Perspectives on Vermicomposting Research: 18 Years of Progress
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Vermicomposting Technologies
		2.3 Vermicomposting: A Brief Definition
		2.4 Vermicomposting Earthworms
		2.5 Materials Used in Vermicomposting
		2.6 Environmental Conditions of Vermicomposting
		2.7 How Vermicomposting Works: Stages of the Process
		2.8 Fate of Human Pathogens During Vermicomposting
		2.9 Vermicompost Properties
		2.10 Vermicomposting and Enzymatic Activity
		2.11 Vermicomposting and Bioremediation
		2.12 Conservation of Vermicompost and Processing Strategies
		2.13 Vermicomposting as an Ecological Engineering Technique for Improving Soil Health and Sustainability in Vineyards: A Case ...
		2.14 Conclusion
	Chapter 3: Experiences on Methods of Vermicompost Analysis for Plant and Soil Nutrition
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Vermicomposts Compared to Soils
		3.3 Parameters Critical in Vermicompost Quality
		3.4 Analysis Important in Vermicompost Quality
			3.4.1 Total Carbon Analysis
			3.4.2 Dissolved Organic Carbon
				3.4.2.1 The Method of Anderson and Ingram (1993)
			3.4.3 Humification Parameters
			3.4.4 Total Elemental Content
				3.4.4.1 Compost Wet Ashing Digestion (AgriLASA 2004)
			3.4.5 Total Nitrogen
			3.4.6 Exchangeable Nitrogen Analysis
				3.4.6.1 Colorimetric Determination of Exchangeable Ammonium and Nitrate (Okalebo et al. 2002)
			3.4.7 Extractable Phosphorus
			3.4.8 Extractable Cations
			3.4.9 Extractable Heavy Metals
			3.4.10 pH and Electrical Conductivity
		3.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 4: An Outstanding Perspective on Biological Dynamics in Vermicomposting Matrices
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Organisms and the Substrates in Vermicompost
		4.3 Procedure for Vermicomposting
		4.4 Earthworm Enemies that Can Reduce Population
		4.5 Macro- and Microbial Biotransformation Processes in Vermicomposting
		4.6 Methods of Identifying Species Diversity during Vermicomposting
		4.7 Biological Succession during Vermicomposting
		4.8 Impacts of Macro- and Microorganisms in Vermicompost on Plant Health
		4.9 Beneficial Effects of Earthworms and Microorganisms in Vermicomposting
		4.10 Effect of Vermicompost on Plant Growth and Yield
		4.11 Plant Disease Suppressing Potential
		4.12 Removal of Pollutants and Antimicrobials or Antibiotic Resistance Genes by Vermicomposting
		4.13 Novel Techniques for Improving Quality of Vermicompost
			4.13.1 Use of Fungal Strains
			4.13.2 Use of Vessels in Cold Climates
			4.13.3 Use of Slurry Method Charged with Biofertiliser and Rock Phosphate
			4.13.4 Vermicompost of Food Waste Enriched with Biochar, Cow Dung, and Mangrove Fungi
		4.14 Conclusions and Way Forward
		References
	Chapter 5: Insights into Earthworm Biology for Vermicomposting
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Earthworms
		5.3 Earthworm Structure and Biology
		5.4 Classes and Species of Earthworms
			5.4.1 Epigeic Earthworms
			5.4.2 Endogeic Worms
			5.4.3 Anecic Earthworms
		5.5 Classification of Earthworms
		5.6 The Opal Classification System
		5.7 Earthworm Species Suitable for Vermicomposting
		5.8 Earthworm Gut Microbes
		5.9 Bacterial Species Associated with Earthworms
		5.10 Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria in the Earthworm Gut
		5.11 Earthworm Culture
		5.12 Essentials for Earthworm Culture
			5.12.1 Bedding
			5.12.2 Feeding
			5.12.3 pH
			5.12.4 Temperature
			5.12.5 Aeration
			5.12.6 Moisture
			5.12.7 Stocking Density
			5.12.8 Carbon: Nitrogen Ratio
			5.12.9 Light Sensitivity
		5.13 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Vermicompost Production
	Chapter 6: Vermicomposting as an Eco-Friendly Approach for Recycling and Valorization Grape Waste
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 How Vermicomposting Works: The Experimental Set-up
		6.3 Physicochemical Characterization and Nutrient Content of Grape Marc Vermicompost
		6.4 Biochemical and Microbiological Characterization of Grape Marc Vermicompost
			6.4.1 Microbial Biomass and Activity
			6.4.2 Enzymatic Activities
			6.4.3 Microbial Richness and Diversity
		6.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 7: Vermitechnology: An Underutilised Agro-tool in Africa
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Basics of Vermitechnology
		7.3 Branches of Vermitechnology
		7.4 Vermiculture
		7.5 Vermicomposting
		7.6 Vermiremediation
		7.7 Vermicasting and Drilodegradation
		7.8 Vermimedicine
		7.9 Vermirobotics
		7.10 Vermiagrotechnology
		7.11 Agricultural Challenges in Africa and Opportunities Presented by Vermitechnology
		7.12 Earthworms as Animal Feed
		7.13 Earthworms as Soil Fertility Improvers
		7.14 Use of Vermicompost as Biofertilisers
		7.15 Vermifluid and Vermitea as Liquid Biofertilisers
		7.16 Vermiagrotechnology in Africa Relative to Other Continents
		7.17 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Prospects of Vermicompost and Biochar in Climate Smart Agriculture
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Agricultural Production Challenges in Africa
		8.3 Biochar
		8.4 Potential of Biochar in Improving Productivity
		8.5 Vermicomposting
		8.6 Opportunities for Mixing Biochar and Vermicompost
		8.7 Potential of Biochar-Vermicomposting in Improving Productivity
		8.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Wild Birds Animal Manure Vermicomposting: Experiences from Namibia
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Collection and Preliminary Characterization of Wild Animal Manure in Namibia
		9.3 Vermicomposting of Wild Animal Manures
		9.4 Container Vermicomposting Experience
			9.4.1 Vermicomposting of Sole Animal Manures
			9.4.2 Preliminary Results
			9.4.3 Vermicomposting of Animal Manures Mixed with Other Organic materials
		9.5 Windrow Vermicomposting Experience
		9.6 Crop Growth Experiments with Wild Animal Manure Vermicomposts
			9.6.1 Vegetable Seedlings Germination and Growth
		9.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 10: Rock Phosphate Vermicompost with Microbial Inoculation Potential in Organic Soil Fertility
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 The Need for a Sustainable Waste Management Strategy
		10.3 Rock Phosphate: An Acceptable Phosphorus Source in Organic Farming
		10.4 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of RP Vermicomposting
		10.5 Acid and Alkaline Soil Reactivity with RP for Improved P Release
		10.6 Impact of Microbial Inoculated RP Vermicompost on Soil Fertility, Health, and Crop Productivity
			10.6.1 Role of Phosphorus Solubilizing Microorganisms on P Release
			10.6.2 Role of Phosphorus Solubilizing Microorganisms During RP Vermicomposting Process
		10.7 Microbe Inoculated RP Vermicompost Applied Under Different Soil Conditions on Plant Growth
		10.8 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Vermicomposts on Soil Quality and Crop Growth
	Chapter 11: A Farmers´ Synthesis on the Effects of Vermicomposts on Soil Properties
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Sub-Saharan Soils
		11.3 What Is Vermicompost?
		11.4 Degraded Soils Amended with Vermicompost
			11.4.1 Chemical Properties
			11.4.2 Physical Properties
			11.4.3 Biological Properties
		11.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 12: Vermicompost as a Possible Solution to Soil Fertility Problems and Enrichment in the Semiarid Zones of Namibia
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 General Description of Namibia: Climatic Condition and Soil Structure
			12.2.1 Climatic Conditions
		12.3 Soil Structure and Fertility
		12.4 Crop Production in Namibia
			12.4.1 Vermicomposting
		12.5 Use of Vermicomposting in Namibia
		12.6 Locally Available Wastes that Can Be Converted into Vermicompost
			12.6.1 Municipal Organic Wastes
			12.6.2 Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Wastes
			12.6.3 Industrial Organic Wastes
		12.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: Role of Vermicompost in Organic Vegetable Production Under Resource-Constrained Famers in Zimbabwe
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Production of Vermicompost
		13.3 Properties of Vermicompost
		13.4 Effects of Vermicompost on Soil Properties and Plant Nutrients
		13.5 Effects of Vermicompost on Organic Vegetable Productivity
		13.6 Possible Challenges of Vermicompost Use in Organic Vegetable Production
		13.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Co-application of Vermicompost with Other Amendments for the Improvement of Infertile/Degraded Soils
		14.1 Introduction
			14.1.1 The General Vermicomposting Process and Typical Vermicompost Characteristics
			14.1.2 Vermicompost Use by Smallholder Farmers in Africa, General Challenges and Upscaling Opportunities
			14.1.3 The Need to Co-apply Vermicompost with Other Amendments
		14.2 Co-applying Vermicompost with Microbial Inoculants
			14.2.1 Vermicompost and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
			14.2.2 Vermicompost with Phosphate Solubilising and N Fixing Bacteria Inoculants
		14.3 Co-applying Vermicompost and Mineral Fertilisers
		14.4 Co-applying Vermicompost with Natural Minerals
			14.4.1 Vermicompost and Silicates
			14.4.2 Vermicompost and Natural Carbonates
			14.4.3 Vermicompost and Rock Phosphates
		14.5 Co-applying Vermicompost with Biochar
			14.5.1 Effect of Biochar and Vermicompost on Soil Microbial Abundance
		14.6 Conclusions and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 15: Sustainable Enhancement of Soil Fertility Using Bioinoculants
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Effective Bioinoculants and Their Uses in Soil Fertility Management
			15.2.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
		15.3 Phosphorus Acting Microbes
		15.4 Micronutrients Biofertilizers
		15.5 Growth Promoting Rhizobium
		15.6 Compost Biofertilizers
		15.7 Factors Affecting Compost
			15.7.1 Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio
			15.7.2 Moisture Content
			15.7.3 Oxygen (Aeration)
			15.7.4 Temperature
		15.8 Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes and Its Benefits
		15.9 Benefits of Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes
		15.10 Studies Done on the Use of BNF and Its Effects on Crop Yields
		15.11 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 16: The Potential of Vermicomposts in Sustainable Crop Production Systems
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Vermicomposting Research in Southern Africa Region
		16.3 Effect of Vermicompost on Seed Germination, Seedling Growth and Development
		16.4 Effect of Vermicompost on Crop Physiological and Phenological Parameters
		16.5 Effect of Vermicompost on Sustainable Weed Management
		16.6 Effects of Vermicompost on Crop Arthropod Pests and Disease Management
		16.7 Chemistry of Vermi-Leachate/Vermicompost and Its Benefits
		16.8 Problems Affecting Farmers in Adopting Vermicomposting Technology
		16.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Vermicompost and Vermi-leachate in Pest and Disease Management
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Potential of Vermicompost and Vermi-leachate in Plant and Soil Nutrient Supply
		17.3 Mechanism of Vermicompost and Vermi-leachate in Crop Biotic Stress Management
			17.3.1 Plant Growth Regulation
			17.3.2 Suppression of Pests and Diseases
		17.4 General Suppression Mechanism
			17.4.1 Competition
			17.4.2 Antibiosis
			17.4.3 Hyper-parasitism/Predation
			17.4.4 Induced Systemic Resistance
		17.5 Specific Suppression Mechanism
		17.6 Microbial Fauna in Vermicompost and Vermi-leachates
		17.7 Vermicompost and Vermi-leachates in Pest Management
		17.8 Vermicompost and Vermi-leachate in Disease Management
		17.9 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Vermicomposting and Wastes
	Chapter 18: Vermicompost: A Potential Reservoir of Antimicrobial Resistant Microbes (ARMs) and Genes (ARGs)
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Nature and Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance During Vermicomposting
			18.2.1 Nature
			18.2.2 Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance During Vermicomposting
		18.3 Vermicomposting Processes and Antimicrobial Resistance
		18.4 Novel Techniques of Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance in Vermicompost
		18.5 ARGs and ARBs Derived from Vermicompost and Their Effects on Public Health
		18.6 Fate of Antimicrobial Resistant Microbes and Genes from Vermicomposting Processes
		18.7 Removal of Antimicrobial Resistant Microbes and Genes During Vermicomposting
		18.8 Future Research Directions
		18.9 Conclusion and Outlook
		References
	Chapter 19: Potential Transformation of Organic Waste in African Countries by Using Vermicomposting Technology
		19.1 Introduction
			19.1.1 The Role of Earthworms in Breaking Down Organic Matter
			19.1.2 Vermicompost, the ``Black Gold´´ in Agriculture
		19.2 Potential of Vermicomposting in Africa
			19.2.1 Vermicomposting Practices in African Countries
		19.3 Management and Challenges of Vermicomposting in African Countries
		19.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 20: Earthworms in Bioremediation of Soils Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Petroleum Remediation Techniques
			20.2.1 Earthworms
			20.2.2 Ecology of Earthworms
		20.3 Petroleum Hydrocarbon
		20.4 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Pollution in the Environment
		20.5 Strategies for the Removal of Petroleum Hydrocarbon from Soil
		20.6 Bioremediation
		20.7 Earthworms as a Beneficial Organism
		20.8 Earthworms in Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
			20.8.1 Lumbricus Rubellus
			20.8.2 Pheretima Hawayana
			20.8.3 Perionyx Excavates
			20.8.4 Hyperiodrilus Africanus
			20.8.5 Eudrilus Eugeniae
			20.8.6 Eisenis Fetida
		20.9 Factors Affecting Bioremediation
		20.10 Conclusion
		References