Urban Ecology: Emerging Patterns and Social-Ecological Systems

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Urban Ecology: EMERGING PATTERNS AND SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
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Contributors
Foreword
	References
Theme I: Emerging facets of urban ecology ̶ urban and urbanization, theory and concepts
1. Urban ecology – current state of research and concepts
	1. Introduction
		1.1 What is urban ecology?
		1.2 Social–ecological systems and urban metabolism
	2. State of research in urban ecology
		2.1 Global trends in the past twodecades (1999–2019)
		2.2 Country-wise division of urban ecology research (from 2009 to 2019)
	3. Urban ecology: concepts and definitions
		3.1 The urban boundary
		3.2 Urban metabolism
		3.3 Land use land cover change
		3.4 Modelling and remote sensing
		3.5 Disaster risk reduction
		3.6 Economies of scale
		3.7 Urban ecological footprint
		3.8 Urban sustainability indicators
		3.9 Smart city
		3.10 Sustainable city
		3.11 Human health
		3.12 Integrated approach
		3.13 Governance and planning
	4. Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
2. Urban metabolism: old challenges, new frontiers, and the research agenda ahead
	1. Urban metabolism: from concept to methods
		1.1 One concept, a variety of methods
		1.2 A variety of practical applications and end-users
	2. Challenges and new frontiers for urban metabolism research
		2.1 Understanding distinct conceptual underpinnings and common methods across ecological sciences
		2.2 Expressing interdependency between biogeochemical cycles and socioeconomic flows of the urban metabolism
		2.3 Linking urban metabolism research with design: systematizing the growing evidence-base on nature-based solutions
	3. Conclusions: a tentative research agenda
	References
Theme II: Urban land use land cover
3. Urban growth pattern detection and analysis
	1. Introduction
	2. Satellite image selection
	3. Preprocessing of satellite imagery
	4. Image classification methods
	5. Optimization of postclassification processing
	6. Accuracy assessment of the classification
	7. Urbanization detection based on the image time-series
	8. Results and analysis
	9. Conclusions
	Acknowledgement
	References
4. Exposition of spatial urban growth pattern using PSO-SLEUTH and identifying its effects on surface temperature
	1. Background
	2. Study area
	3. Method
		3.1 Data acquisition
		3.2 Extraction of features
		3.3 Preprocessing
		3.4 Land-use analysis: Gaussian maximum likelihood classifier
		3.5 Land surface temperature: single window algorithm
		3.6 Landscape modelling and prediction: PSO-SLEUTH
	4. Results and discussion
		4.1 Land-use analysis
		4.2 Land surface temperature
		4.3 Landscape modelling and prediction
	5. Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
Theme III: Social ecological systems
5. Stressors of disaster-induced displacement and migration in India
	1. Introduction
	2. Disaster and climate change induced displacements: a theoretical construct
	3. Disasters and displacement in India
	4. Case studies
		4.1 Case study of Kosi floods 2008
			4.1.1 Water, sanitation and hygiene
			4.1.2 Healthcare and infrastructure
			4.1.3 Security, law and order issues
			4.1.4 Livelihood
			4.1.5 Land-use planning
		4.2 Natural disaster induced migration in/from Odisha
			4.2.1 A lagging HDI
			4.2.2 Infrastructure and agriculture
			4.2.3 Political awareness and assertion
	5. Discussion
	6. Conclusion
	References
6. Ecological economics of an urban settlement: an overview
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Ecological economics
	2. Urbanization
		2.1 Overview
		2.2 Impacts of urbanization on the ecosystem and its services
	3. Ecosystem services and their valuation in urban settlement
		3.1 Urban ecosystem services
		3.2 Ecosystem disservices
		3.3 Valuation of urban ecosystem services
			3.3.1 Plurality in values
				3.3.1.1 Defining values
				3.3.1.2 What is valuation?
					3.3.1.2.1 Conventional economics
					3.3.1.2.2 Environmental economics
					3.3.1.2.3 Conventional ecology
					3.3.1.2.4 Ecological economics
		3.4 Modelling urban ecosystem and valuation of its services
			3.4.1 Ecological footprint
			3.4.2 Urban metabolism
				3.4.2.1 Energy metabolism
				3.4.2.2 Carbon metabolism
				3.4.2.3 Material footprints
			3.4.3 Monetary valuation
		3.5 Challenges in valuation of urban ecosystem services
	4. A way forward
	References
7. Urban green space, social equity and human wellbeing
	1. Introduction
	2. Background Australia
	3. Background: Greater Sydney
	4. Background: Greater Sydney demographics
	5. Background: Greater Sydney employment
	6. Methodology
	7. Results
	8. Urbanization as a health challenge
	9. Defining greenspace
	10. Mental and physical health benefits of urban greenspace
		10.1 Mental health
		10.2 Physical health and an active lifestyle
	11. Social inequity in access to greenspace as an environmental justice issue
	12. Quality of urban green space
	13. Summary of Australian research on environmental justice
	14. Urban greenspace as locally unwanted land use (Lulu)
	15. Discussion
		15.1 Demographic considerations
		15.2 Inclusive green of cities to avoid gentrification
		15.3 Innovative approaches
		15.4 Collaboration
	16. Conclusion
	References
Theme IV: Urban environment
8. Urbanization, urban agriculture and food security
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Urban ecology and the roles of urban agriculture
		1.2 Productivist agriculture
		1.3 Urban agriculture
		1.4 Urban agriculture and food security
	2. Sustainability of agricultural produce and food produce and the linkages between producers and consumers
	3. The role of human values
	4. The role of action research in developing sustainable agriculture and healthy food produce
	5. Conclusions
	References
9. Carbon reduction strategies for the built environment in a tropical city
	1. Introduction
	2. Case studies
		2.1 Building type: school (primary education)
			2.1.1 Site details
				2.1.1.1 Climatic conditions
			2.1.2 Results
		2.2 Building type: temple complex
			2.2.1 Site details
			2.2.2 Results
		2.3 Building type: college (secondary education)
			2.3.1 Site details
			2.3.2 Results
		2.4 Building type: public auditorium
			2.4.1 Site details
			2.4.2 Results
	3. Discussion
	4. Energy savings
	5. Carbon reduction
	6. Economic feasibility
	7. Conclusions
	References
10. Trends in active and sustainable mobility: experiences from emerging cycling territories of Dhaka and Innsbruck
	1. Background
	2. Urban cycling: rising trend in Dhaka
		2.1 Modal shift in urban transport
		2.2 Barriers in cycling: incompetent planning, social hindrance and negative reaction from other modes
	3. Story of transition in Innsbruck: the cycling capital of Austria
		3.1 Key drivers in the last decades
	4. Policy recommendation
	5. Discussion and conclusion
	References
11. Air quality and its impact on urban environment
	1. Introduction
	2. Urban pollutant emission flux and their fate in the major cities around the world
	3. Air quality and human health
	4. Air pollution and urban vegetation
	5. Temperature and urban microclimate
	6. Atmospheric pollutants removal
	7. Urban infrastructure and ventilation coefficient
	8. Case study of urban air quality of Delhi
		8.1 Temporal evolution and interannual variability of anthropogenic and natural aerosols over Delhi
		8.2 Spatial distribution of different aerosols component during different seasons
			8.2.1 BC extinction coefficient
			8.2.2 SO4 scattering
			8.2.3 Dust column density
			8.2.4 Total scattering
	9. Conclusion
	References
12. Sustainable water management in megacities of the future
	1. Introduction
	2. Literature review
		2.1 Urban water management – historical perspective
		2.2 Sustainable water management in megacities – new agenda
	3. Methodology
	4. Results
	5. Discussion and conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
13. Comparing invasive alien plant community composition between urban, peri-urban and rural areas; the city of Cape Town as a  ...
	1. Introduction
	2. Methods
		2.1 Study area
		2.2 Site selection
		2.3 Field sampling and experimental design
		2.4 Statistical analyses
	3. Results
	4. Discussion
		4.1 The difference in IAP species abundance and richness between urban, peri-urban and rural areas
		4.2 Habitat condition is responsible for promoting the establishment and facilitating the invasion of IAPs into natural areas
		4.3 Practical implications for management
	Acknowledgements
	References
Theme V: Urban material balance
14. Types, sources and management of urban wastes
	1. Introduction
	2. Urbanization
		2.1 Types of urban wastes
			2.1.1 Solid wastes
				2.1.1.1 Garbage/trash
			2.1.2 Liquid waste
				2.1.2.1 Wastewater
			2.1.3 Plastic wastes
			2.1.4 Paper waste
			2.1.5 Metal waste
			2.1.6 Ceramics and glass wastes
			2.1.7 Organic wastes
				2.1.7.1 Urban organic wastes (UOW)
				2.1.7.2 Residential organic wastes
			2.1.8 Recyclable wastes
			2.1.9 Hazardous wastes
				2.1.9.1 Major contributors
				2.1.9.2 Hazardous hospital waste
			2.1.10 Nonhazardous wastes
			2.1.11 Radioactive wastes
			2.1.12 Construction and demolition wastes
		2.2 Generation of wastes
			2.2.1 Municipal solid wastes (MSW)
				2.2.1.1 Sources of MSW generation
			2.2.2 Residential/household wastes
			2.2.3 Agricultural wastes
			2.2.4 Biomedical/hospital waste
			2.2.5 E-waste
			2.2.6 Industrial waste
				2.2.6.1 Exhaust gases
		2.3 Effects of wastes on life/urban ecology
			2.3.1 Effects on animal life
				2.3.1.1 Effect of chlorinate family
				2.3.1.2 Effect of plastic wastes
				2.3.1.3 Effect of industrial residues
				2.3.1.4 Effect of metallic elements
			2.3.2 Effects on plant life
				2.3.2.1 Effects of pesticide wastes
				2.3.2.2 Effect of water pollution
				2.3.2.3 Effect of toxic elements
				2.3.2.4 Effect of alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEO)
		2.4 Approaches to waste management
			2.4.1 Unregulated disposal
				2.4.1.1 Unregulated disposal of MSW
			2.4.2 Recycling
				2.4.2.1 Recycling of MSW
				2.4.2.2 Recycling of paper waste
				2.4.2.3 Recycling of polymer wastes
			2.4.3 Recovery
				2.4.3.1 Recovery of plastics wastes
			2.4.4 Incineration
			2.4.5 Burial/landfilling
				2.4.5.1 Landfilling of MSW
			2.4.6 Anaerobic digestion
		2.5 Common disposal methods of urban wastes
			2.5.1 Submergence
			2.5.2 Trade
				2.5.2.1 Trade of plastic wastes
			2.5.3 Attenuation
				2.5.3.1 Attenuation of food wastes
			2.5.4 Isolation
				2.5.4.1 Isolation of fruit wastes
			2.5.5 3R – reduce, reuse and recycle
	3. Conclusions and recommendations
	References
15. Nutrient recovery from municipal waste stream: status and prospects
	1. Introduction
	2. Nutrient recovery options through waste biorefineries
		2.1 Nutrient selective recovery technologies
			2.1.1 Nitrogen selective
				2.1.1.1 Biological N recovery
				2.1.1.2 Physicochemical recovery of N from biomass
			2.1.2 Phosphorus selective
			2.1.3 Potassium selective
		2.2 Mixed nutrient recovery technologies
			2.2.1 Anaerobic digestion
			2.2.2 Pyrolysis
			2.2.3 Aerobic composting/vermicomposting
	3. Fertilizer value of waste
		3.1 Municipal solid waste compost/vermicompost
		3.2 Wastewater
		3.3 Biosolids
	4. Agronomic response of waste stream
		4.1 Municipal solid waste compost/vermicompost
		4.2 Wastewater
		4.3 Biosolids
	5. Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
16. Determinants of soil carbon dynamics in urban ecosystems
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Urban soil as CO2 source or sink
		1.2 Urban soil carbon dynamics: a brief insight
		1.3 Factors affecting the urban soil carbon concentration and stock
			1.3.1 Soil CO2 efflux
			1.3.2 Soil texture
			1.3.3 Soil bulk density and porosity
			1.3.4 Soil pH
			1.3.5 Soil moisture
			1.3.6 Soil organic matter
			1.3.7 Interactions of multiple factors
	2. Conclusion
	References
Theme VI: Cities: healthy, smart and sustainable
17. Urban ecology and human health: implications of urban heat island, air pollution and climate change nexus
	1. Introduction
	2. Urbanization, Urban Heat Island (UHI) and its effect
		2.1 Urbanization and UHI
			2.1.1 Global scenario
			2.1.2 Indian scenario
		2.2 UHI and health effects
	3. Urbanization, air pollution and its effects
		3.1 Air pollution: a general introduction
		3.2 Sources of air pollution
		3.3 Air pollutants and health effects
			3.3.1 Short-term effects
			3.3.2 Long-term effects
		3.4 Pathway of air pollution effect
		3.5 Urbanization and anthropogenic air pollution
	4. UHI, air pollution and human health nexus in the era of climate change
	5. Policy recommendations
		5.1 Urban design and infrastructure
		5.2 Green cover and water body rejuvenation
		5.3 Air quality mitigation and adaptation strategies
	6. Conclusion
	7. Funding information
	References
18. Cities management and sustainable development: monitoring and assessment approach
	1. Introduction and objectives
	2. Sustainability management in cities
	3. Indicators to monitoring the sustainable development
	4. Acronyms/publication year/developer or source
	5. Findings and discussion
		5.1 Formulating indicators assessment based on sustainable development dimensions
		5.2 Environmental dimension
		5.3 Economic dimension
		5.4 Social dimension
		5.5 Institutional dimension
	6. Approach to assessing SD at the local level
	7. Final remarks
	References
19. Challenges in assessing urban sustainability
	1. Introduction
	2. Methodology
	3. Evolution of urban sustainability
		3.1 Urban sustainability in Europe
	4. Recent development
	5. Indicators of urban sustainability
		5.1 Threshold, critical value, target value and relative performance
	6. Discussion
	7. Conclusion
	References
Theme VII: Sustainable urban design
20. Towards sustainable urban redevelopment: urban design informed by morphological patterns and ecologies of informal settlements
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Informal settlements in the global
		1.2 Environmental effects of informal settlements within cities
		1.3 Objectives and analytical methods
	2. Urban villages: China\'s typical informal settlements
		2.1 Overview of urban villages in Chinese cities
		2.2 Misperception of urban villages\' physical environment
		2.3 Underestimated environmental aspects of urban villages
		2.4 Urgency and challenges in the city of Shenzhen
	3. The case study
		3.1 Concept of urban village neighbourhood
		3.2 Investigation of Hubei village neighbourhood
			3.2.1 Continuous history and diverse morphological patterns
			3.2.2 Morphological characteristics of the investigated spaces
			3.2.3 Neighbourhood dynamics
			3.2.4 Environmental diversity
	4. Reflections of existing urban design practices
		4.1 Main strategies for urban village redevelopment
		4.2 Limitations of the strategy of ‘reduce density’
		4.3 Necessity of innovative thinking and a more flexible approach
	5. Ecologies of urban villages: the ‘four shared elements’
		5.1 Shared environment—morphological diversity
		5.2 Shared space—temporospatial permeability
		5.3 Shared amenity/welfare—functional distribution
		5.4 Shared social capital—social inclusiveness
	6. Conclusion and future outlook
		6.1 Summary of environmental analysis
		6.2 Insights for urban design and policy implications
	Acknowledgements
	References
21. Assessing the role of urban design in a rapidly urbanizing historical city and its contribution in restoring its urban ecol ...
	1. Introduction
	2. Problem and research question
		2.1 Living historical cities: brief about historical cities
		2.2 Concept of planning
			2.2.1 Evolutionary changes in planning
			2.2.2 Urban design, urban ecology and its relationship
			2.2.3 Role of an urban ecosystem in the process of transformation
			2.2.4 Space syntax analysis as an analyzing tool in the process of transformation
	3. Case study—the Indian context
		3.1 Introduction to Varanasi, details of the urban fabric (physical built environment at the neighbourhood and city level)
			3.1.1 A living history
			3.1.2 Architectural expression
	4. Methodology
		4.1 Extracting and analysing the spaces on the basis of new urbanism approach
	5. Analysis
		5.1 Analysis based on space syntax technique
			5.1.1 Assi Ghat and Pushkar Kund
			5.1.2 Dhashashwamedh Ghat, main road and market area
			5.1.3 Panchganga Ghat, Thatheri Bazaar and Chaukhamba
	6. Discussion
	7. Conclusion
	References
22. ‘Green building’ movement in India: study on institutional support and regulatory support
	1. Introduction
	2. Green building concept – meaning and initiatives
	3. Methodology
	4. LEED India
	5. GRIHA
	6. Impact of built environment on ecology/environment
	7. Demographic growth and urbanization
		7.1 Urban population of India
	8. Green Building Certification in India- Under LEED India
	9. Green Building certification - Under GRIHA
	10. Green building certification
		10.1 Regulatory Framework of the Country & Regulatory framework of the country
	11. Green building effort and urbanization: critical assessment
	12. Elements of green building concept in building byelaws
		12.1 Model building Byelaws 2004 and 2016
		12.2 Opportunities for green building elements: ecological balance
			12.2.1 Energy conservation and use of nonconvention energy
			12.2.2 Water conservation and recycling of wastewater
			12.2.3 Rainwater Harvesting
	13. Status of amendment byelaws by the states/UTs after the MBBL 2004
	14. Challenges to the application of green building norms
	15. Conclusion
	References
23. Challenges and innovations of transportation and collection of waste
	1. Municipal waste generation—global indicators and local approach
	2. Waste categories and fate of waste streams from households
	3. Storage and transportation of separated waste
	4. Waste collection vehicles with reduced emissions and electric vehicles
	5. Novel solutions in the automation of waste management and application of information technologies in waste collection
	6. Case study of separate collection—waste electrical and electronic equipment
	7. Conclusions
	References
24. Critical assessment and future dimensions for the urban ecological systems
	1. Introduction
	2. Transdisciplinary nature
	3. Methodology—bibliometric analysis
	4. Urban ecology: state of research and associations
		4.1 Major research fields in urban ecology domain
	5. Integration with other themes and emerging fields
	6. Evolution of major research fields and challenges
	7. Challenges and opportunities
	8. Ecology of cities
	9. Ecology in cities
	10. Management and sustainability
	11. Conclusions
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Z
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