University Chemistry

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
About the Author......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
List of Applications......Page 15
Preface......Page 16
Brief Contents......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
0: The Language of Chemistry......Page 26
0.1 Chemistry Is the Study of Matter and Change......Page 27
0.2 Matter Consists of Atoms and Molecules......Page 36
0.3 Compounds Are Represented by Chemical Formulas......Page 45
0.4 Reactions Are Represented by Balanced Chemical Equations......Page 56
0.5 Quantities of Atoms or Molecules Can Be Described by Mass or Number......Page 59
0.6 Stoichiometry Is the Quantitative Study of Mass and Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions......Page 77
1: The Quantum Theory of the Submicroscopic World......Page 96
1.1 Classical Physics Does Not Adequately Describe the Interaction of Light with Matter......Page 97
1.2 The Bohr Model Was an Early Attempt to Formulate a Quantum Theory of Matter......Page 108
1.3 Matter Has Wavelike Properties......Page 119
1.4 The Hydrogen Atom Is an Exactly Solvable Quantum-Mechanical System......Page 134
2: Many-Electron Atoms and the Periodic Table......Page 151
2.1 The Wavefunctions of Many-Electron Atoms Can Be Described to a Good Approximation Using Atomic Orbitals......Page 152
2.2 Electron Configurations of Many-Electron Atoms Are Constructed Using the Aufbau (or “Building-Up”) Principle......Page 159
2.3 The Periodic Table Predates Quantum Mechanics......Page 168
2.4 Elements Can Be Classified by Their Position in the Periodic Table......Page 171
2.5 The Properties of the Elements Vary Periodically Across the Periodic Table......Page 174
3: The Chemical Bond......Page 195
3.1 Atoms in a Molecule Are Held Together by Chemical Bonds......Page 196
3.2 A Covalent Bond Involves the Sharing of Electrons Between Atoms in a Molecule......Page 198
3.3 Electronegativity Differences Determine the Polarity of Chemical Bonds......Page 207
3.4 Drawing Correct Lewis Structures Is an Invaluable Skill for a Chemist......Page 214
3.5 Molecular Orbital Theory Provides a Detailed Description of Chemical Bonding......Page 227
4: Molecular Structure and Interaction......Page 247
4.1 The Basic Three-Dimensional Structure of a Molecule Can Be Predicted Using the VSEPR Model......Page 248
4.2 The Polarity of a Molecule Can Be Described Quantitatively by Its Dipole Moment......Page 259
4.3 Valence Bond Theory for Polyatomic Molecules Requires the Use of Hybrid Orbitals......Page 265
4.4 Isomers Are Compounds That Have the Same Molecular Formula but Different Atomic Arrangements......Page 277
4.5 Bonding in Polyatomic Molecules Can Be Explained Using Molecular Orbitals......Page 282
4.6 The Interactions Between Molecules Greatly Affect the Bulk Properties of Materials......Page 287
5: The States of Matter I: Phase Diagrams and Gases......Page 306
5.1 Pressure and Temperature Are Two Important Macroscopic Properties of Chemical Systems......Page 307
5.2 Substances and Mixtures Can Exist as Solid, Liquid, or Gas, Depending upon the External Conditions......Page 311
5.3 The Ideal-Gas Equation Describes the Behavior of All Gases in the Limit of Low Pressure......Page 317
5.4 The Kinetic Theory of Gases Provides a Molecular Explanation for the Behavior of Gases......Page 333
5.5 Real Gases Exhibit Deviations from Ideal Behavior at High Pressures......Page 342
6: The States of Matter II: Liquids and Solids......Page 358
6.1 The Structure and Properties of Liquids Are Governed by Intermolecular Interactions......Page 359
6.2 Crystalline Solids Can Be Classified in Terms of Their Structure and Intermolecular Interactions......Page 366
6.3 The Properties of Crystalline Solids Are Determined Largely by the Intermolecular Interactions......Page 376
6.4 Band Theory Accurately Explains the Conductivity of Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators......Page 381
7: Thermochemistry: Energy in Chemical Reactions......Page 389
7.1 Thermodynamics Is the Study of Energy and Its Transformations in Macroscopic Systems......Page 390
7.2 The Energy Absorbed by a System as Heat in a Constant-Pressure Process Is Equal to the Change in Enthalpy......Page 400
7.3 The Temperature Change of a System Upon Heating Is Governed by Its Heat Capacity......Page 406
7.4 The Enthalpy Change for Any Reaction Can Be Calculated Using Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 420
7.5 The Reaction Enthalpies Can Be Estimated from Bond Enthalpies......Page 426
7.6 Enthalpy Changes Also Accompany Physical Transformations......Page 430
7.7 The Temperature Dependence of Reaction Enthalpies Can Be Determined from Heat Capacity Data......Page 437
8: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 448
8.1 The Entropy of an Isolated System Always Increases in Any Spontaneous Process......Page 449
8.2 The Entropy Change for a Process Can Be Calculated Using the Thermodynamic Definition of Entropy......Page 457
8.3 The Third Law of Thermodynamics Allows Us to Determine Absolute Entropies......Page 465
8.4 The Spontaneity of a Process at Constant Temperature and Pressure Is Governed by the Gibbs Free Energy......Page 471
8.5 The Mixing of Pure Substances Leads to an Increase in the Entropy and a Decrease in the Gibbs Free Energy......Page 481
8.6 In Living Systems, Spontaneous Reactions Are Used to Drive Other Nonspontaneous, but Essential, Biochemical Processes......Page 484
9: Physical Equilibrium......Page 491
9.1 The Phase Boundaries in Pure Substances Can Be Predicted Using Thermodynamics......Page 492
9.2 The Solubility of a Substance Is Determined by Temperature, Pressure, and Intermolecular Forces......Page 498
9.3 The Liquid-Vapor Phase Equilibrium of a Solution Can Be Understood in Terms of the Entropy of Mixing and the Intermolecular Forces......Page 508
9.4 Colligative Properties Are Properties of Solution Phase Equilibria That Depend Only upon the Number of Solute Molecules, Not Their Type......Page 516
10: Chemical Equilibrium......Page 536
10.1 The Equilibrium Constant Governs the Concentration of Reactants and Products at Equilibrium......Page 537
10.2 The Equilibrium Constant Can Be Used to Predict the Direction and Equilibrium Concentrations of a Chemical Reaction......Page 549
10.3 The Equilibrium Constant for a Reaction Can Be Determined from the Standard Gibbs Energy Change......Page 556
10.4 The Response of an Equilibrium System to a Change in Conditions Can Be Determined Using Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 561
11: Acids and Bases......Page 581
11.1 Many Processes in Chemistry Are Acid-Base Reactions......Page 582
11.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Aqueous Solutions Are Governed by the Autoionization Equilibrium of Water......Page 589
11.3 The Strengths of Acids and Bases Are Measured by Their Ionization Constants......Page 595
11.4 The pH of an Acid or Base Can Be Calculated If Its Ionization Constant Is Known......Page 604
11.5 The Strength of an Acid Is Determined in Part by Molecular Structure......Page 615
11.6 Many Salts Have Acid-Base Properties in Aqueous Solution......Page 619
11.7 Oxide and Hydroxide Compounds Can Be Acidic or Basic in Aqueous Solution Depending on Their Composition......Page 625
12: Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility......Page 636
12.1 The Ionization of Weak Acids and Bases Is Suppressed by the Addition of a Common Ion......Page 637
12.2 The pH of a Buffer Solution Is Resistant to Large Changes in pH......Page 640
12.3 The Concentration of an Unknown Acid or Base Can Be Determined by Titration......Page 647
12.4 An Acid-Base Indicator Is a Substance That Changes Color at a Specifi c pH......Page 656
12.5 A Precipitation Reaction Occurs when a Reaction in Solution Leads to an Insoluble Product......Page 658
12.6 The Solubility Product Is the Equilibrium Constant for the Dissolution Process......Page 660
12.7 The Solubility of a Substance Is Affected by a Number of Factors......Page 669
12.8 The Solubility Product Principle Can Be Applied to Qualitative Analysis......Page 678
13: Electrochemistry......Page 688
13.1 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions Involve a Transfer of Electrons from One Species to Another......Page 689
13.2 Redox Reactions Can Be Used to Generate Electric Current in a Galvanic Cell......Page 696
13.3 The Standard Emf of Any Electrochemical Cell Can Be Determined If the Standard Reduction Potentials for the Half-Reactions Are Known......Page 699
13.4 The Emf of an Electrochemical Cell Is Directly Related to Gibbs Free Energy Change of the Redox Reaction......Page 706
13.5 The Concentration Dependence of the Emf Can Be Determined Using the Nernst Equation......Page 711
13.6 Batteries Use Electrochemical Reactions to Produce a Ready Supply of Electric Current......Page 717
13.7 In Electrolysis, an Electric Current Is Used to Drive a Nonspontaneous Reaction......Page 722
14: Chemical Kinetics......Page 737
14.1 Chemical Kinetics Is the Study of the Rates at Which Chemical Reactions Occur......Page 738
14.2 The Rate Law Gives the Dependence of the Reaction Rate on the Reactant Concentrations......Page 745
14.3 Integrated Rate Laws Specify the Relationship Between Reactant Concentration and Time......Page 748
14.4 The Arrhenius Equation Gives the Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants......Page 761
14.5 The Reaction Mechanism Is the Sequence of Elementary Steps That Lead to Product Formation......Page 769
14.6 Reaction Rates Can Often Be Increased by the Addition of a Catalyst......Page 779
15: The Chemistry of Transition Metals......Page 797
15.1 Transition Metals Have Electronic Configurations with Incomplete d or f Shells......Page 798
15.2 Transition Metals Can Form a Variety of Coordination Compounds......Page 802
15.3 Bonding in Coordination Compounds Can Be Described by Crystal Field Theory......Page 811
15.4 The Reactions of Coordination Compounds Have a Wide Number of Useful Applications......Page 818
16: Organic and Polymer Chemistry......Page 825
16.1 Hydrocarbons Are Organic Compounds Containing Only Hydrogen and Carbon......Page 826
16.2 Hydrocarbons Undergo a Number of Important Chemical Reactions......Page 836
16.3 The Structure and Properties of Organic Compounds Are Greatly Influenced by the Presence of Functional Groups......Page 840
16.4 Polymers Are Very Large Molecular Weight Compounds Formed from the Joining Together of Many Subunits Called Monomers......Page 851
16.5 Proteins Are Polymer Chains Composed of Amino Acid Monomers......Page 858
16.6 DNA and RNA Are Polymers Composed of Nucleic Acids......Page 866
17: Nuclear Chemistry......Page 880
17.1 Nuclear Chemistry Is the Study of Changes Involving Atomic Nuclei......Page 881
17.2 The Stability of a Nucleus Is Determined Primarily by Its Neutron-to-Proton Ratio......Page 885
17.3 Radioactive Decay Is a First-Order Kinetic Process......Page 892
17.4 New Isotopes Can Be Produced Through the Process of Nuclear Transmutation......Page 898
17.5 In Nuclear Fission, a Large Nucleus Is Split into Smaller Nuclei......Page 901
17.6 In Nuclear Fusion, Energy Is Produced When Light Nuclei Combine to Form Heavier Ones......Page 907
17.7 Radioactive and Stable Isotopes Alike Have Many Applications in Science and Medicine......Page 909
17.8 The Biological Effects of Radiation Can Be Quite Dramatic......Page 911
A1.1 Measurement......Page 920
A1.2 Mathematical Background......Page 926
Appendix 2: Thermodynamic Data at 1 Bar and 25°C......Page 933
Appendix 3: Derivation of the Names of Elements*......Page 939
Appendix 4: Isotopes of the First Ten Elements......Page 945
Glossary......Page 948
Answers to Even-Numbered Problems......Page 960
Credits......Page 974
Index......Page 976