Understanding Microelectronics: A Top-Down Approach

CONTENTS......Page 9
Preface......Page 19
List of Abbreviations......Page 23
1.1 GOOD MORNING......Page 27
1.2 PLANNING THE TRIP......Page 30
1.3 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS......Page 31
1.3.1 Meeting a System......Page 34
1.4.1 Sensors......Page 37
1.4.2 Actuators......Page 40
1.5 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE COMPUTER?......Page 42
1.6 GOAL AND LEARNING STRATEGIES......Page 45
1.6.2 Creativity and Execution......Page 46
1.7 SELF TRAINING, EXAMPLES AND SIMULATIONS......Page 47
1.7.1 Role of Examples and Computer Simulations......Page 48
1.8.1 CAD Tools......Page 49
1.8.2 Analog Simulator......Page 50
1.8.3 Device and Macro-block Models......Page 51
1.8.4 Digital Simulation......Page 52
1.9 ELECTRONIC VIRTUAL STUDENT LAB (ElvisLab)......Page 53
PROBLEMS......Page 55
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 57
2.2 TYPES OF SIGNALS......Page 61
2.3 TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS......Page 71
2.4 CONTINUOUS-TIME AND DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS......Page 77
2.4.1 The Sampling Theorem......Page 81
2.5 USING SAMPLED-DATA SIGNALS......Page 83
2.5.1 The z-transform......Page 84
2.6 DISCRETE-AMPLITUDE SIGNALS......Page 85
2.6.1 Quantized Signal Coding......Page 90
2.7 SIGNALS REPRESENTATION......Page 91
2.7.1 The Decibel......Page 93
2.8 DFT AND FFT......Page 95
2.9 WINDOWING......Page 96
2.10 GOOD AND BAD SIGNALS......Page 101
2.10.1 Offset......Page 102
2.10.2 Interference......Page 103
2.10.3 Harmonic Distortion......Page 104
2.10.4 Noise......Page 108
2.11 THD, SNR, SNDR, DYNAMIC RANGE......Page 112
PROBLEMS......Page 115
ADDITIONAL COMPUTER EXAMPLES......Page 118
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 121
3.2.1 Electronic Toys......Page 122
3.2.2 Video Game and Game Console......Page 126
3.2.3 Personal Media Player......Page 127
3.3.1 Wired Communication Systems......Page 129
3.3.2 Wireless: Voice, Video and Data......Page 130
3.3.3 RFID......Page 133
3.4 COMPUTATION AND PROCESSING......Page 134
3.4.1 Microprocessor......Page 136
3.4.2 Digital Signal Processor......Page 137
3.4.3 Data Storage......Page 138
3.5 MEASURE, SAFETY, AND CONTROL......Page 140
3.5.1 The Weather Station......Page 141
3.5.2 Data Fusion......Page 142
3.5.3 Systems for Automobile Control......Page 145
3.5.4 Noise-canceling Headphones......Page 146
3.6 SYSTEM PARTITIONING......Page 148
3.7 SYSTEM TESTING......Page 150
PROBLEMS......Page 151
ADDITIONAL COMPUTER EXAMPLES......Page 152
4.1 WHAT IS SIGNAL PROCESSING?......Page 153
4.2 LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR PROCESSING......Page 156
4.3 ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING......Page 161
4.3.1 Timing for Signal Processing......Page 164
4.4.1 Time Response of Linear Systems......Page 167
4.4.2 Frequency Response of Linear Systems......Page 170
4.4.3 Transfer Function......Page 173
4.5.1 Amplitude Bode Diagram......Page 177
4.5.2 Phase Bode Diagram......Page 181
4.6 FILTERS......Page 184
4.6.1 Analog Design and Sensitivity......Page 188
4.6.2 Sampled-data Analog and Digital Design......Page 193
4.7 NON-LINEAR PROCESSING......Page 195
PROBLEMS......Page 201
ADDITIONAL COMPUTER EXAMPLES......Page 205
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 207
5.2 PROCESSING WITH ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS......Page 209
5.2.1 Electronic Interfaces......Page 210
5.2.2 Driving Capability......Page 214
5.2.3 Electrostatic Discharge Protection......Page 217
5.2.4 DC and AC Coupling......Page 219
5.2.5 Ground and Ground for Signal......Page 223
5.2.6 Single-ended and Differential Circuits......Page 224
5.3 INSIDE ANALOG ELECTRONIC BLOCKS......Page 226
5.3.1 Simple Continuous-time Filters......Page 227
5.4 CONTINUOUS-TIME LINEAR BASIC FUNCTIONS......Page 231
5.4.1 Addition of Signals......Page 232
5.4.2 The Virtual Ground Concept......Page 235
5.4.3 Multiplication by a Constant......Page 238
5.4.4 Integration and Derivative......Page 240
5.5 CONTINUOUS-TIME NON-LINEAR BASIC FUNCTIONS......Page 247
5.5.1 Threshold Detection......Page 248
5.5.2 Analog Multiplier......Page 249
5.6 ANALOG DISCRETE-TIME BASIC OPERATIONS......Page 251
5.7 LIMITS IN REAL ANALOG CIRCUITS......Page 253
5.8 CIRCUITS FOR DIGITAL DESIGN......Page 255
5.8.1 Symbols of Digital Blocks......Page 256
5.8.2 Implementation of Digital Functions......Page 259
PROBLEMS......Page 260
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 265
6.2 CHOOSING THE PART......Page 267
6.3.1 Ideal Operation......Page 268
6.4.2 Absolute Maximum Ratings and Operating Rating......Page 270
6.4.3 Electrical Characteristics......Page 271
6.4.4 Packaging and Board Assembly......Page 280
6.4.5 Small-signal Equivalent Circuit......Page 281
6.5.1 Inverting Amplifier......Page 283
6.5.2 Non-inverting Amplifier......Page 287
6.5.3 Superposing Inverting and Non-inverting Amplification......Page 288
6.5.4 Weighted Addition of Signals (with Inversion)......Page 290
6.5.5 Unity Gain Buffer......Page 291
6.5.6 Integration and Derivative......Page 292
6.5.7 Generalized Amplifier......Page 294
6.6.1 Input Offset......Page 295
6.6.2 Finite Gain......Page 296
6.6.3 Non-ideal Input and Output Impedances......Page 297
6.6.4 Finite Bandwidth......Page 302
6.6.5 Slew-rate Output Clipping and Non-linear Gain......Page 303
6.7.1 Use of the OTA......Page 306
6.8 COMPARATOR......Page 310
6.8.1 Comparator Data Sheet......Page 312
6.8.2 Clocked Comparator......Page 315
PROBLEMS......Page 316
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 319
7.2.1 General Features......Page 321
7.2.2 Electrical Static Specifications......Page 322
7.2.3 Electrical Dynamic Specifications......Page 325
7.2.4 Digital and Switching Data......Page 328
7.3.1 Anti-aliasing and Reconstruction Filters......Page 329
7.3.2 Oversampling and Digital Filters......Page 331
7.4.1 Resistor-based Architectures......Page 332
7.4.2 Capacitance-based Architectures......Page 338
7.4.3 Parasitic Insensitivity......Page 340
7.4.4 Hybrid Resistive–capacitive Architectures......Page 342
7.4.5 Current-based Architectures......Page 343
7.5 NYQUIST-RATE ADC......Page 347
7.5.1 Flash Converter......Page 348
7.5.2 Two-step Flash......Page 350
7.5.3 Pipeline Converters......Page 353
7.5.4 Slow Converters......Page 354
7.6.1 Quantization Error and Quantization Noise......Page 358
7.6.2 Benefit of the Noise View......Page 362
7.6.3 Sigma–Delta Modulators......Page 363
7.7 DECIMATION AND INTERPOLATION......Page 368
PROBLEMS......Page 370
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 373
8.2 DIGITAL WAVEFORMS......Page 374
8.2.1 Data Transfer and Data Communication......Page 376
8.2.2 Propagation Delay......Page 380
8.2.3 Asynchronous and Synchronous Operation......Page 381
8.3.1 Combinational Circuits......Page 382
8.3.2 Sequential Circuits......Page 384
8.4 DIGITAL ARCHITECTURES WITH MEMORIES......Page 386
8.5.1 Adder and Subtracter......Page 388
8.5.2 Multiplier......Page 391
8.5.3 Registers and Counters......Page 397
8.6 CIRCUIT DESIGN STYLES......Page 403
8.6.1 Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs) and FPGAs......Page 404
8.7 MEMORY CIRCUITS......Page 407
8.7.1 Random-access Memory Organization and Speed......Page 408
8.7.2 Types of Memories......Page 410
8.7.3 Circuits for Memories......Page 412
PROBLEMS......Page 417
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 419
9.2 THE DIODE......Page 421
9.2.1 Equivalent Circuit......Page 424
9.2.2 Parasitic Junction Capacitance......Page 426
9.2.3 Zener and Avalanche Breakdown......Page 428
9.2.4 Doping and p-n Junction......Page 429
9.2.5 Diode in Simple Circuits......Page 433
9.3 THE MOS TRANSISTOR......Page 437
9.3.1 MOS Physical Structure......Page 438
9.3.2 Voltage–current Relationship......Page 440
9.3.3 Approximating the I–V Equation......Page 442
9.3.4 Parasitic Effects......Page 443
9.3.5 Equivalent Circuit......Page 445
9.4 MOS TRANSISTOR IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS......Page 447
9.5 THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)......Page 449
9.5.1 The BJT Physical Structure......Page 452
9.5.2 BJT Voltage–current Relationships......Page 453
9.5.3 Bipolar Transistor Model and Parameters......Page 457
9.5.4 Darlington Configuration......Page 459
9.5.5 Small-signal Equivalent Circuit of the Bipolar Transistor......Page 460
9.6 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS......Page 461
9.7 THE JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (JFET)......Page 465
9.8 TRANSISTORS FOR POWER MANAGEMENT......Page 467
PROBLEMS......Page 469
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 471
10.2 USE OF SMALL-SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS......Page 472
10.3 INVERTING VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER......Page 473
10.4 MOS INVERTER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD......Page 477
10.4.1 Small-signal Analysis of the CMOS Inverter......Page 478
10.5 CMOS INVERTER WITH ACTIVE LOAD......Page 480
10.5.1 CMOS Inverter with Active Load: Small-signal Analysis......Page 482
10.6 INVERTING AMPLIFIER WITH BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS......Page 485
10.6.1 Small-signal Analysis of BJT Inverters......Page 488
10.7 SOURCE AND EMITTER FOLLOWER......Page 497
10.7.1 Small-signal Equivalent Circuit of Source and Emitter Follower......Page 499
10.7.2 Small-signal Input and Output Resistance......Page 500
10.8 CASCODE WITH ACTIVE LOAD......Page 503
10.8.1 Equivalent Resistances......Page 506
10.8.2 Cascode with Cascode Load......Page 508
10.9 DIFFERENTIAL PAIR......Page 509
10.10 CURRENT MIRROR......Page 513
10.10.1 Equivalent Circuit......Page 514
10.10.2 Current Mirror with High Output Resistance......Page 515
10.10.3 Differential to Single-ended Converter......Page 516
10.11 REFERENCE GENERATORS......Page 518
PROBLEMS......Page 519
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 521
11.2 LOGIC GATES......Page 522
11.2.1 Gate Specifications......Page 523
11.3 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC COMBINATIONS......Page 525
11.4 COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS......Page 530
11.4.1 Exclusive-OR and Exclusive-NOR......Page 531
11.4.2 Half-adder and Full-adder......Page 533
11.4.3 Logic Comparators......Page 535
11.4.4 Decoders......Page 537
11.4.5 Parity Generator and Parity Checker......Page 539
11.5.1 Latch......Page 540
11.5.2 Gated Latch......Page 542
11.5.3 Edge-triggered Flip-flop......Page 543
11.5.4 Master–slave Flip-flop......Page 545
11.6 FLIP-FLOP SPECIFICATIONS......Page 546
11.7.1 CMOS Inverter......Page 548
11.7.2 Dynamic Response of CMOS Inverters......Page 552
11.7.3 Power Consumption......Page 555
11.7.4 NOR and NAND......Page 556
11.7.5 Pass-gate Logic......Page 558
11.7.6 Tri-state Gates......Page 560
11.7.7 Dynamic Logic Circuits......Page 561
PROBLEMS......Page 562
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 565
12.2 GENERAL CONFIGURATION......Page 566
12.2.1 Linear Feedback Systems......Page 567
12.3 PROPERTIES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK......Page 569
12.3.2 Bandwidth Improvement......Page 571
12.3.3 Reducing Distortion......Page 573
12.3.4 Noise Behavior......Page 575
12.4 TYPES OF FEEDBACK......Page 577
12.4.1 Real Input and Output Ports......Page 579
12.4.2 Input and Output Resistances......Page 581
12.5.1 Frequency Response of Feedback Circuits......Page 585
12.5.2 Gain and Phase Margins......Page 588
12.5.3 Compensation of Operational Ampli.ers......Page 589
12.6 FEEDBACK NETWORKS......Page 592
PROBLEMS......Page 594
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 597
13.2 VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS......Page 598
13.2.1 Half-wave Rectifier......Page 599
13.2.2 Full-wave Rectifier......Page 603
13.3.1 Zener Regulator......Page 607
13.3.2 Series Linear Regulator......Page 609
13.3.3 Series Linear Regulator with Adjustable Voltage......Page 614
13.3.4 Supply of Active Blocks and Drop-out Voltage......Page 616
13.3.5 Low Drop-out (LDO) Voltage Regulator......Page 617
13.3.6 Protection Circuits......Page 619
13.4 SWITCHED CAPACITOR REGULATOR......Page 621
13.4.1 Power Consumed by SC Regulators......Page 623
13.4.2 Generation of Negative Voltages......Page 625
13.4.3 Voltage Ripple......Page 626
13.5 CHARGE PUMP......Page 627
13.6 SWITCHING REGULATORS......Page 630
13.6.1 Buck Converter......Page 631
13.6.2 Boost Converter......Page 633
13.6.3 Buck–boost Converter......Page 636
13.6.4 Loop Control and Switches......Page 637
13.6.5 Effciency of Switching Regulator......Page 639
13.7.1 Rechargeable Batteries......Page 641
13.7.2 Power Harvesting......Page 644
13.7.3 Power Management Techniques......Page 646
PROBLEMS......Page 648
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 649
14.2 GENERATION OF SIMPLE WAVEFORMS......Page 650
14.3 OSCILLATORS......Page 653
14.3.1 Wien-bridge Oscillator......Page 655
14.3.2 Phase-shift Oscillator......Page 656
14.3.3 Ring Oscillator......Page 657
14.3.4 Tank and Harmonic Oscillator......Page 660
14.3.5 Digitally Controlled and Voltage-controlled Oscillator (VCO)......Page 662
14.3.6 Quartz Oscillator......Page 664
14.3.7 Phase Noise and Jitter......Page 666
14.3.8 Phase-locked Oscillator......Page 668
14.4 DAC-BASED SIGNAL GENERATOR......Page 673
14.5 SIGNAL MEASUREMENT......Page 675
14.5.1 Multimeter......Page 677
14.5.2 Oscilloscope......Page 678
14.5.3 Logic Analyzer......Page 681
14.6 SPECTRUM ANALYZER......Page 683
PROBLEMS......Page 684
Index......Page 687