Ultraviolet Spectroscopy And Uv Lasers

Ultraviolet Spectroscopy and UV lasers......Page 1
Preface......Page 3
Contributors......Page 12
Contents......Page 10
I. MOTIVATION FOR ULTRAVIOLET LITHOGRAPHY......Page 15
Table of Contents......Page 0
II. RADIATION SOURCES......Page 16
III. DETECTION OF UV RADIATION......Page 18
A. Bulk Materials......Page 20
1. Transmittance and Reflectance Measurements......Page 23
2. Ellipsometry......Page 25
A. Fused Silica......Page 26
1. Fused Silica for 193 nm and 248 nm Applications......Page 29
2. Modified Fused Silica......Page 32
B. Calcium Fluoride......Page 33
C. Other Fluorides......Page 35
VI. OPTICAL COATINGS......Page 37
A. COATINGS DURABILITY STUDIES......Page 38
VII. ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND SURFACE CONTAMINATION......Page 41
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 43
REFERENCES......Page 44
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 47
II. OVERVIEW OF PAST AND PRESENT WORK......Page 48
III. EXPERIMENTAL WORK......Page 52
A. Mechanism......Page 53
B. Theoretical Model......Page 56
A. Wavelength Calculations and Edlen’s Formula......Page 60
B. Spectroscopy of the Noble Gases and Racah Notation......Page 61
C. Assigned Neon Transitions......Page 63
D. Assigned Argon Transitions......Page 67
A. Optogalvanic Waveforms Associated with the Atomic Neon Transitions in a Hollow Cathode Discharge......Page 68
C. Argon UV Transition at 297.905 nm......Page 74
D. Argon UV Transition at 320.366 nm......Page 76
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 78
REFERENCES......Page 80
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 84
II. THE HOLLOW-CATHODE DISCHARGE TUBE......Page 86
III. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS......Page 88
IV. GENERAL SPECTROSCOPIC EQUATIONS......Page 89
1. The Comet-Tail System......Page 90
4. The Marchand-D’Incan-Janin (C2∆r–2Πi)System......Page 91
5. Microwave and Infrared Studies......Page 92
C. Analysis of the Spectra......Page 93
D. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 101
A. Earlier Work on the Spectra of Other Isotopomers of CO......Page 105
B. Experimental Details......Page 106
C. Results and Discussion......Page 107
1. Spectrum of CO+ in the Region 2113 A˚–2656 A......Page 108
2. Rotational Analysis of the First Negative System......Page 109
A. Earlier Work......Page 111
C. Analysis of the Spectra......Page 112
D. Vibrational Analysis and Isotope Shifts......Page 116
E. Perturbations in the B 2∑+u State of 15N2+......Page 117
A. Introduction......Page 119
B. Experimental Details......Page 120
2. Rotational Analysis of the 0– 1, 0– 2, and 0– 3 Bands of  15N18O......Page 121
D. Vibrational Analysis......Page 128
REFERENCES......Page 130
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 134
III. INSTRUMENTATION FOR CROSS-SECTION MEASUREMENTS......Page 135
IV. CROSS-SECTION MEASUREMENTS OF THE PHOTOABSORPTION CONTINUUM......Page 137
V. CROSS-SECTION MEASUREMENTS OF THE BANDS......Page 138
VI. LINE AND BAND OSCILLATOR STRENGTHS......Page 140
REFERENCES......Page 141
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 143
1. Frequency Doubling......Page 144
2. Nonresonant Third Harmonic Generation......Page 145
3. Two-Photon Resonance-Enhanced Four-Wave Mixing......Page 148
B. Supersonic Jets......Page 151
1. Laser-Induced Fluorescence......Page 153
2. Ion Formation and Detection by TOF Mass Spectrometry......Page 155
1. Group 12 Monohalide Radicals......Page 158
2. Diatomic Halogens......Page 163
B. Analytical Chemistry......Page 170
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 184
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 186
REFERENCES......Page 187
I. THE MOLECULAR FLUORINE LASER......Page 203
II. PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY AT 157 nm......Page 205
B. O2......Page 209
E. OCS......Page 210
F. H2O......Page 211
G. ICN......Page 212
K. CO2......Page 213
IV. VUV SPECTROSCOPY OF TRIATOMIC CLUSTERS......Page 215
V. LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE AND MASS SPECTROSCOPY OF MERCURY DIATOMIC AND TRIATOMIC CLUSTERS ASSISTED BY LASER LIGHT AT 157.6 nm......Page 218
VI. BISTATE QUANTUM SWITCHING IN MERCURY TRIATOMIC CLUSTERS......Page 223
REFERENCES......Page 231
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 240
1. Nonlinear Susceptibilities......Page 241
2. Harmonic Generation......Page 243
3. Frequency Upconversion......Page 249
1. UV/ VUV Material Limitations......Page 251
2. Nonlinear Crystals for Harmonic Generation......Page 252
3. UV/ VUV Frequency Conversion Using Harmonic Generation......Page 256
1. Nonlinear Crystals for Frequency Upconversion......Page 259
2. UV/VUV Laser Generation Using Nonlinear Frequency Upconversion......Page 260
D. UV Tunable Fiber Raman Lasers......Page 262
1. Stimulated Raman Scattering in Optical Fibers......Page 264
2. Four-Photon Mixing in Optical Fibers......Page 270
4. UV Raman Scattering in Optical Fibers......Page 271
5. UV Tunable Double-Pass Fiber Raman Laser......Page 273
III. UV AND VUV GENERATION USING SOLID-STATE RARE-EARTH-ACTIVATED LASER CRYSTALS......Page 282
REFERENCES......Page 284
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 292
A. Molecular Fluorine Laser......Page 294
B. VUV Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 297
A. Electronic Properties of Wide Band Gap Materials......Page 302
IV. VUV ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY OF TRIVALENT RE IONS IN WIDE BAND GAP FLUORIDE CRYSTALS......Page 306
B. Praseodymium (Pr3+, 4f2)......Page 311
C. Neodymium (Nd3+, 4f3)......Page 312
E. Samarium (Sm3+, 4f5)......Page 318
G. Gadolinium (Gd3+, 4f7)......Page 319
H. Terbium (Tb3+, 4f8)......Page 320
I. Dysprosium (Dy3+, 4f9)......Page 322
J. Holmium (Ho3+, 4f10)......Page 323
K. Erbium (Er3+, 4f11)......Page 324
L. Thulium (Tm3+, 4f12)......Page 326
IV. LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE OF RE IONS IN WIDE BAND GAP FLUORIDE CRYSTALS AT 157 nm......Page 327
C. Neodymium......Page 329
D. Terbium......Page 331
E. Holmium......Page 335
G. Thulium......Page 336
REFERENCES......Page 338
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 348
II. STATE OF THE ART FOR BROAD-BAND UV LASER SYSTEMS......Page 349
III. INTEREST AND LIMITATIONS OF Pr3+, Nd3+, Er3+, AND Tm3+ COMPARED TO Ce3+......Page 352
A. Position and Nature of the 4fn-1 5d-Emitting Level......Page 353
B. Fluorescence Quantum Efficiency......Page 357
IV. 4f2 → 4f 5d ESA TRANSITIONS AND 4f 5d ENERGY LEVELS OF Pr3+......Page 360
A. Excited-State Absorption Data......Page 362
B. 4f 5d Energy Level Analysis......Page 364
V. 4f3 → 4f25d ESA TRANSITIONS OF Nd3+......Page 368
VII. SOLARIZATION EFFECTS......Page 371
VIII. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION......Page 373
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 377
REFERENCES......Page 378
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 382
II. CONTINUUM GENERATION......Page 383
A. Theory and Experimental Considerations......Page 384
B. Review of Experimental Results......Page 385
III. FOUR-WAVE MIXING......Page 390
A. Background......Page 391
1. FWM in Alkali Metal Vapors......Page 393
2. Other Metal Vapors......Page 396
3. The Rare Gases......Page 397
A. Experimental Observations......Page 399
B. Theoretical Treatment of Harmonic Generation......Page 402
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 403
REFERENCES......Page 404
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 408
A. UV Laser Systems Using Frequency Conversion......Page 409
B. Direct Generation of UV Coherent Light from Lasers......Page 410
B. Gain Spectrum of Ce: LLF crystal......Page 414
C. Small-Signal Gain and Saturation Fluence of Ce: LLF Crystal......Page 416
D. Basic Properties of Ce: LiCAF Laser Medium......Page 418
A. Short Pulse Generation with Simple Laser Scheme......Page 420
1. Subnanosecond Ce: LLF Laser Pumped by KrF Excimer Laser......Page 421
2. Subnanosecond Ce: LLF Laser Pumped by the Fifth Harmonic of Nd:YAG Laser......Page 423
1. Nanosecond Pumping......Page 425
2. Picosecond Pumping......Page 427
A. Passive Self-Injection-Seeded Pulse Train Laser Scheme......Page 428
B. Self-Injection-Seeded Pulse Train Ce: LLF Laser......Page 430
C. Self-Injection-Seeded Pulse Train Ce: LiCAF Laser......Page 431
V. ULTRAVIOLET-TUNABLE SUBNANOSECOND PULSE GENERATION......Page 433
A. Tunable Ce: LLF Laser......Page 434
B. Tunable Ce: LiCAF Laser......Page 435
C. Tunable Subnanosecond Pulse Generation Around 230 nm by Sum-Frequency Mixing......Page 439
A. Confocal Four-Pass CW Ce: LLF Amplifier......Page 442
B. Picosecond Pulse Ce: LLF Amplifier......Page 443
C. Efficient UV Short-Pulse Amplification in a Ce: LiCAF MOPA System......Page 445
A. High-Energy Pulse Generation from a Ce: LiCAF Oscillator......Page 449
B. Ce: LiCAF Oscillator with Noncollinear Brewster Angle Pumping......Page 453
C. Ce: LLF Laser Using Large Ce: LLF Crystal......Page 454
VIII. CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS......Page 455
REFERENCES......Page 457
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 462
II. TUNABLE DIODE-PUMPED UV CHAIN BASED ON A MODE-LOCKED Cr:LiSAF OSCILLATOR AND Ti:SAPPHIRE REGENERATIVE AMPLIFIER......Page 463
A. Actively Mode-Locked Cr: LiSAF Oscillator......Page 464
B. Ti: Sapphire Regenerative Amplifier......Page 465
C. Harmonic Generation......Page 466
III. GAIN-SWITCHED PICOSECOND LASER DIODE SEEDING A TI:SAPPHIRE REGENERATIVE AMPLIFIER......Page 469
A. Gain-Switched Laser Diode as Seeder of the Regenerative Amplifier......Page 470
B. Performances of the Ti: Sapphire Regenerative Amplifier......Page 471
C. Frequency Conversion to Blue and UV......Page 474
D. Improvement of Spectral Quality......Page 475
IV. Q-SWITCHED ND: YAG MICROLASER SEEDING A Nd:YVO4 AMPLIFIER......Page 477
A. Passively Q-Switched Microchip Laser......Page 478
B. Nd: YVO4 Passive Multipass Amplifier......Page 479
C. Nonlinear Conversion Stage......Page 481
D. Towards Higher Power in the UV......Page 482
V. CONCLUSION......Page 483
REFERENCES......Page 484
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 486
II. PHYSICS CONSIDERATIONS......Page 487
1. Backscatter Measurements......Page 490
2. Occultation Measurements......Page 492
3. Limb-Scatter Measurements......Page 493
B. HITRAN Database......Page 494
1. UV Data in HITRAN......Page 496
3. Stratospheric Gas and Aerosol Experiment Instrument......Page 499
1. GOME......Page 500
3. Ozone Monitoring Instrument......Page 502
6. Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars......Page 503
REFERENCES......Page 504
A. Why Ultraviolet Astronomy?......Page 509
B. Difficulties of Ultraviolet Astronomy......Page 512
A. Characteristics of Materials for Transmission Optics......Page 514
B. Characteristics of Coatings for Reflective Optics......Page 515
C. Minimizing the Number of Optical Elements to Maximize Throughput......Page 516
1. Objective Grating Spectrographs......Page 517
2. Rowland Circle Spectrographs......Page 519
3. Other Spectrograph Designs......Page 521
1. Photographic Film in Ultraviolet Astronomy......Page 522
2. Photomultipliers and Channel Electron Multipliers......Page 523
3. Electronic Imaging Devices......Page 524
A. Solar Ultraviolet Spectroscopy Space Missions......Page 528
B. Hubble Space Telescope......Page 530
1. Faint Object Spectrograph and High-Resolution Spectrograph......Page 533
2. Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph......Page 535
D. Interstellar Medium-Absorption Profile Spectrometer......Page 537
E. Far-Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer......Page 540
F. Extreme Ultraviolet Spectroscopy Missions......Page 543
A. Measurements of the Solar Atmosphere and Solar Activity......Page 546
B. Measurements of the Temperatures and Luminosities of Hot Stars......Page 547
C. Measurements of the Composition and Properties of the Interstellar Medium......Page 552
D. Studies of Extragalactic Objects and Cosmology......Page 561
REFERENCES......Page 564