Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar ()

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Abbreviations
List of conventions observed in this book
The Turkish alphabet and writing conventions
Part 1 Phonology: the sound system
	1 Phonological units
		1.1 Consonants and vowels
			1.1.1 Consonants
				1.1.1.1 Consonants and their allophones
			1.1.2 Vowels
				1.1.2.1 Vowels and their allophones
				1.1.2.2 Long vowels
		1.2 The distribution of consonants and vowels
			1.2.1 Consonant clusters
	2 Sound changes produced in the stem by suffixation
		2.1 Alternations of voiceless/voiced consonants: ‘p’/‘b’, ‘t’/‘d’, ‘k’/‘g’, ‘k’/‘ğ’, ‘ç’/‘c’
		2.2 Alternations of single consonants with double consonants
		2.3 Vowel/Ø alternation
		2.4 Short/long vowel alternations
		2.5 æ/e alternation
		2.6 Alternation of ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘u’ and ‘ü’ with ‘ı’ and ‘i’
	3 Vowel harmony
		3.1 Types of vowel harmony
		3.2 Vowel harmony in suffixes and clitics
			3.2.1 Vowel harmony in I-type suffixes
			3.2.2 Vowel harmony in A-type suffixes
		3.3 Vowel harmony in roots
		3.4 Exceptions to vowel harmony
	4 Word stress
		4.1 Stress in roots
			4.1.1 Regular roots
			4.1.2 Irregular roots and stems
		4.2 Stress in compounds
		4.3 Stress in suffixes
			4.3.1 Stressable suffixes
			4.3.2 Unstressable suffixes and clitics
				4.3.2.1 The effect of unstressable suffixes and clitics on word stress
	5 Intonation and sentence stress
		5.1 The intonation contours of Turkish
		5.2 Position of stress in the intonational phrase
			5.2.1 Primary stress
			5.2.2 Secondary stress
		5.3 Sentences with more than one intonation contour
Part 2 Morphology: the structure of words
	6 Principles of suffixation
		6.1 The form of suffixes
			6.1.1 Vowel alternation in suffixes
			6.1.2 Consonant alternation in suffixes: ‘ç’/‘c’, ‘t’/‘d’ and ‘k’/‘g’
			6.1.3 The attachment of a suffix to a root or stem: deletable vowels and consonants
		6.2 Irregular changes in roots and suffixes under (further) suffixation
		6.3 The order of suffixation
	7 Word classes, derivation and derivational suffixes
		7.1 Word classes
			7.1.1 Nominals
			7.1.2 Verbs
			7.1.3 Postpositions
			7.1.4 Conjunctions and discourse connectives
			7.1.5 Interjections
		7.2 Derivation
			7.2.1 Suffixes that attach to verbs
				7.2.1.1 Suffixes that attach to verbs to form nominals
				7.2.1.2 Suffixes that attach to verbs to form verbs
			7.2.2 Suffixes that attach to nominals
				7.2.2.1 Suffixes that attach to nominals to form verbs
				7.2.2.2 Suffixes that attach to nominals to form nominals
		7.3 The internal ordering of derivational suffixes
		7.4 Prefixation
	8 Inflectional suffixes
		8.1 Nominal inflectional suffixes
			8.1.1 The plural suffix -lAr
			8.1.2 Possessive suffixes
			8.1.3 Case suffixes
			8.1.4 Other nominal inflectional markers
		8.2 Verbal inflectional suffixes
			8.2.1 Voice suffixes
				8.2.1.1 Causative
				8.2.1.2 Passive
				8.2.1.3 Reflexive
				8.2.1.4 Reciprocal
			8.2.2 The negative marker
			8.2.3 Tense/aspect/modality markers
				8.2.3.1 Position 1
				8.2.3.2 Position 2
				8.2.3.3 Position 3
		8.3 The copula ‘be’, copular markers and -DIr
			8.3.1 The copula ‘be’
			8.3.2 The copular markers -(y)DI, -(y)mIș and -(y)sA
			8.3.3 -DIr
		8.4 Person markers
		8.5 Subordinating suffixes
			8.5.1 Multi-functional subordinating suffixes: -DIK, -(y)AcAK, -mA, -mAK
				8.5.1.1 -DIK and -(y)AcAK
				8.5.1.2 -mA and -mAK
			8.5.2 Subordinating suffixes which have a single function
				8.5.2.1 -(y)An and -(y)Iș
				8.5.2.2 Subordinating suffixes which only form converbs
	9 Reduplication
		9.1 Emphatic reduplication
		9.2 m-reduplication
		9.3 Doubling
			9.3.1 Doubling in lexical formations
	10 Noun compounds
		10.1 Bare compounds
			10.1.1 Bare noun compounds
			10.1.2 Adjective-noun compounds
		10.2 -(s)I compounds
		10.3 Embedding compounds within other compounds
		10.4 Separability of the constituents of compounds
	11 Clitics
		11.1 The clitics of Turkish
			11.1.1 The properties of particular clitics
				11.1.1.1 bile
				11.1.1.2 dA
				11.1.1.3 -(y)sA/ise
				11.1.1.4 ki
				11.1.1.5 mI
				11.1.1.6 ya
		11.2 Classification of clitics by relative power
			11.2.1 Combinations of clitics within the intonational phrase
			11.2.2 The combination of clitics with the negative marker -mA
Part 3 Syntax: the structure of sentences
	12 Simple and complex sentences
		12.1 Constituents of a sentence: subject and predicate
			12.1.1 Predicate
				12.1.1.1 Verbal sentences
				12.1.1.2 Nominal sentences
				12.1.1.3 The complementarity of -(y)- and var/yok with ol-
			12.1.2 Expression of the subject
		12.2 Agreement of subject and predicate
			12.2.1 Person and number marking on the predicate
			12.2.2 Agreement of the predicate with different types of plural subject
				12.2.2.1 Subject marked with the plural suffix
				12.2.2.2 Subjects containing determiners
				12.2.2.3 Pronominalized determiners as subjects
				12.2.2.4 Conjoined subjects
			12.2.3 Personal pronouns as subject complements
		12.3 Complex sentences and subordination
		12.4 Functional sentence types
	13 The verb phrase
		13.1 Constituents of the verb phrase
			13.1.1 The verb
			13.1.2 Complements of the verb
				13.1.2.1 Direct object
				13.1.2.2 Oblique object
			13.1.3 Adverbials
		13.2 Transitivity and voice
			13.2.1 Causative constructions
				13.2.1.1 Multiple occurrences of the causative suffix
				13.2.1.2 Causatives of verbs of emotion
			13.2.2 Passive constructions
				13.2.2.1 Passivizing a transitive verb
				13.2.2.2 Expressing the agent in a passive sentence
				13.2.2.3 Impersonal passives
				13.2.2.4 Double passive constructions
			13.2.3 Constructions with non-productive voice suffixes
				13.2.3.1 Reflexive constructions
				13.2.3.2 Reciprocal constructions
			13.2.4 Combinations of voice suffixes
		13.3 Auxiliary verbs
			13.3.1 Compound verb forms
				13.3.1.1 Compound verb forms containing bound auxiliaries
				13.3.1.2 Compound verb forms containing free auxiliaries
			13.3.2 Nominal-verb compounds
	14 The noun phrase
		14.1 Structure of the noun phrase
			14.1.1 Items which can function as the head of a noun phrase
			14.1.2 Modifiers in the noun phrase
		14.2 Countability
			14.2.1 Uses of the indefinite article bir with noun phrases that do not denote discrete entities
		14.3 Nominal inflection
			14.3.1 Number
				14.3.1.1 Plural marking with -lAr
				14.3.1.2 Further uses of the plural suffix -lAr
				14.3.1.3 Transnumeral uses of the unmarked form
			14.3.2 Possession
				14.3.2.1 Marking possession in -(s)I compounds
			14.3.3 Case
				14.3.3.1 The non-case-marked noun phrase
				14.3.3.2 The accusative case marker
				14.3.3.3 The dative case marker
				14.3.3.4 The locative case marker
				14.3.3.5 The ablative case marker
				14.3.3.6 The genitive case marker
		14.4 The genitive-possessive construction
		14.5 Partitive constructions
			14.5.1 The bare-headed partitive construction with ablative-marked modifier
			14.5.2 The -(s)I-marked partitive construction with ablative-marked modifier
			14.5.3 The -(s)I-marked partitive construction with genitive-marked modifier
			14.5.4 Other features of partitive constructions
		14.6 Stress in noun phrases
	15 Adjectival constructions, determiners and numerals
		15.1 Functions of adjectivals
		15.2 Adjectives
			15.2.1 Forming adjectives by means of derivational suffixes
			15.2.2 Intensive forms
		15.3 Complex adjectivals
			15.3.1 Adjective + noun
			15.3.2 Locative-marked noun phrase
			15.3.3 Ablative-marked noun phrase
			15.3.4 Noun phrase marked with -lI
			15.3.5 Noun phrase marked with -lIk
			15.3.6 Locative-marked noun phrase + -ki
			15.3.7 Temporal adverbial + -ki
			15.3.8 Noun phrase + diye
			15.3.9 Relative clause
			15.3.10 Possessive-marked noun phrase + adjective (truncated relative clause)
		15.4 Modification of adjectives
			15.4.1 General modification
				15.4.1.1 By simple adverbials of degree
				15.4.1.2 By complex adverbials
			15.4.2 Comparatives
			15.4.3 Superlatives
		15.5 Complementation of adjectives
		15.6 Determiners
			15.6.1 Indefinite determiners
			15.6.2 Definite determiners
		15.7 Numerals
			15.7.1 Cardinal numerals
			15.7.2 Ordinal numerals
			15.7.3 Distributive numerals
		15.8 The enumerator tane and measure/type terms
		15.9 The position of determiners and numerals within the noun phrase
			15.9.1 Numerals with determiners
			15.9.2 Determiners or numerals with adjectives
			15.9.3 Determiners or numerals with complex adjectivals formed with -DAn, -lI or -lIK
			15.9.4 Determiners or numerals with locative-marked complex adjectivals
			15.9.5 Determiners or numerals with adjectivals formed with -ki
			15.9.6 Determiners or numerals with relative clauses
	16 Adverbial constructions
		16.1 Types of adverbial construction
			16.1.1 Simple adverbs
			16.1.2 Adjectives used as adverbs
			16.1.3 Doubled forms
			16.1.4 Noun phrases without case marking
			16.1.5 Noun phrases with oblique case marking
			16.1.6 Noun or adjective suffixed with -CA
			16.1.7 Noun phrase suffixed with -DIr
			16.1.8 Postpositional phrases
			16.1.9 Constructions with olarak
			16.1.10 Constructions with olmak üzere
			16.1.11 Adverbial clauses
		16.2 Syntactic functions of adverbials
		16.3 Modal adverbials
		16.4 Circumstantial adverbials
			16.4.1 Time adverbials
				16.4.1.1 Location in time
				16.4.1.2 Duration
				16.4.1.3 Frequency
				16.4.1.4 Other time adverbials
			16.4.2 Place adverbials
			16.4.3 Manner adverbials
			16.4.4 Other types of circumstantial adverbial
		16.5 Adverbials of quantity or degree
		16.6 Adverbials of respect
		16.7 Exclusive adverbials
		16.8 Particularizing adverbials
		16.9 Modification of adverbs
	17 Postpositional phrases
		17.1 Structure of the postpositional phrase
		17.2 Bare postpositions
			17.2.1 Postpositions taking non-case-marked or genitive complements
			17.2.2 Postpositions taking dative complements
			17.2.3 Postpositions taking ablative complements
		17.3 Possessive-marked postpositions
			17.3.1 Group 1: spatial relations
				17.3.1.1 Group 1 possessive-marked postpositions with genitive complements
				17.3.1.2 Group 1 possessive-marked postpositions with non-case-marked complements
				17.3.1.3 Particular features of individual postpositions in Group 1
			17.3.2 Group 2: abstract relations
				17.3.2.1 Particular features of individual postpositions in Group 2
		17.4 Syntactic functions of the postpositional phrase
			17.4.1 Adverbial function
			17.4.2 Adjectival function
			17.4.3 Predicative function
	18 Pronouns
		18.1 Personal pronouns
			18.1.1 Simple personal pronouns
			18.1.2 kendi
				18.1.2.1 Bare form kendi
				18.1.2.2 Inflected kendi-: emphatic, reflexive, simple pronominal and resumptive usages
			18.1.3 kendi kendi-
			18.1.4 The reciprocal pronoun birbir- ‘each other’, ‘one another’
			18.1.5 The omission and usage of personal pronouns
				18.1.5.1 Conditions under which personal pronouns are used
		18.2 Demonstrative pronouns: bu ‘this (one)’, șu ‘this/that (one)’, o ‘that (one)’
		18.3 Locative and directional pronouns
			18.3.1 Locative pronouns: bura- ‘here’, șura- ‘here’, ‘over there’ and ora- ‘there’
			18.3.2 Directional pronouns
		18.4 Pronominalized adjectives, numerals and determiners
		18.5 Pronominal expressions with -ki
		18.6 Other pronominal expressions
			18.6.1 Pronominal quantifiers
			18.6.2 insan ‘one’
			18.6.3 șey
	19 Questions
		19.1 Questions with mI
			19.1.1 Yes/no questions
				19.1.1.1 Direct yes/no questions
				19.1.1.2 Tag questions
			19.1.2 Alternative questions
			19.1.3 Positions for mI other than the end of the sentence
			19.1.4 The effect of placing mI after a particular phrase
			19.1.5 Yes/no questions containing a(nother) stressed phrase
		19.2 Wh-questions
			19.2.1 Wh-phrases
				19.2.1.1 kim ‘who’
				19.2.1.2 ne ‘what’
				19.2.1.3 nere- ‘where’
				19.2.1.4 hangi ‘which’
				19.2.1.5 kaç ‘how many’
				19.2.1.6 ne kadar ‘how much’
				19.2.1.7 ne zaman ‘when’
				19.2.1.8 neden, niye, niçin ‘why’
				19.2.1.9 nasıl ‘how’
			19.2.2 The position of wh-phrases in a sentence
			19.2.3 Wh-phrases and stressed phrases
			19.2.4 Multiple wh-phrases
		19.3 Echo questions
		19.4 Questioning parts of subordinate clauses
		19.5 Modal adverbs used in questions
			19.5.1 hani
			19.5.2 acaba
			19.5.3 yoksa
			19.5.4 bakalım
		19.6 Rhetorical question forms in narrative
	20 Negation
		20.1 -mA
			20.1.1 Negating clauses with simple verbs
			20.1.2 Negating clauses with compound verb forms
			20.1.3 -(y)Ip . . . -mA ‘whether/if . . . (or not)’
		20.2 değil
			20.2.1 Negating nominal sentences
			20.2.2 Negating verbal sentences
			20.2.3 değil in elliptical sentences
		20.3 yok
		20.4 The negative connective ne . . . ne ‘neither . . . nor’
		20.5 Expressions interacting with negation
			20.5.1 hiç ‘never’, ‘ever’, ‘at all’
			20.5.2 hiçbir ‘no’, ‘any’, and expressions containing hiçbir and herhangi bir ‘no’, ‘any’
			20.5.3 (hiç) kimse ‘no one’, ‘anyone’
			20.5.4 Modifiers of negation markers
				20.5.4.1 asla ‘never’, ∇katiyen ‘never’
				20.5.4.2 pek ‘much’, ‘very’
				20.5.4.3 o kadar ‘so’, ‘such’, ‘all that’
		20.6 Expressions interacting with negation in subordinate clauses
			20.6.1 Expressions interacting with negation in noun clauses
			20.6.2 Expressions interacting with negation in relative clauses and adverbial clauses
		20.7 Sakın ‘be sure’, ‘mind (you don’t)’, ‘I wonder if . . .’, ‘I do hope . . .’
	21 Tense, aspect and modality
		21.1 The expression of tense, aspect and modality in Turkish
		21.2 Tense
			21.2.1 Past tense
			21.2.2 Present tense
			21.2.3 Future tense
		21.3 Aspect
			21.3.1 Perfective and imperfective
			21.3.2 Subdivisions of imperfective: progressive and habitual
			21.3.3 Events and states
			21.3.4 Aspect in nominal sentences
				21.3.4.1 The distinction between oldu and -(y)DI/idi or vardı
				21.3.4.2 Habitual aspect in nominal sentences
				21.3.4.3 Other meanings of oluyor
		21.4 Modality
			21.4.1 Generalizations and hypotheses
				21.4.1.1 Statements of permanent or generalized validity
				21.4.1.2 The use of -DIr in formal writing
				21.4.1.3 Hypothetical and counterfactual situations
				21.4.1.4 Assumptions
			21.4.2 Possibility and necessity
				21.4.2.1 The expression of possibility
				21.4.2.2 The expression of necessity/obligation
			21.4.3 Evidentially marked statements with -mIș or -(y)mIș
				21.4.3.1 Information-based evidential statements
				21.4.3.2 Result-based evidential statements
				21.4.3.3 Use of the evidential copula to express a newly discovered state of affairs
				21.4.3.4 Evidentiality in questions
			21.4.4 Volitional utterances
				21.4.4.1 Wishes: -sA(ydI)
				21.4.4.2 Commands
				21.4.4.3 Suggestions: first person optative forms -(y)AyIm, -(y)AlIm
				21.4.4.4 Deliberation about possible action: questions with -sAm, -sAk
				21.4.4.5 Requests and offers: second person aorist interrogative
				21.4.4.6 Expression of commitment: first person aorist
		21.5 Tense, aspect and modality in compound verb forms
			21.5.1 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -mIș
				21.5.1.1 The resultative usage of compound verb forms with -mIș
			21.5.2 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -(I)yor
			21.5.3 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -(y)AcAk
			21.5.4 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -(A/I)r or -mAz
			21.5.5 The addition of the past copula -(y)DI to compound verb forms
	22 Definiteness, specificity and generic reference
		22.1 Definite status
		22.2 Indefinite status
			22.2.1 Specific and non-specific indefinites
		22.3 Categorial status
		22.4 Generic reference
			22.4.1 Generic reference by singular noun phrases
				22.4.1.1 The bare generic
				22.4.1.2 The indefinite generic
			22.4.2 Generic reference by plural noun phrases
			22.4.3 Generic noun phrases as direct objects
		22.5 The effect of word order on referential status
		22.6 The effect of stress on referential status
		22.7 The effect of tense, aspect and modality on referential status
	23 Word order
		23.1 Unmarked sentences: word order and stress
			23.1.1 Verbal sentences
			23.1.2 Nominal sentences
				23.1.2.1 Linking sentences
				23.1.2.2 Existential sentences
		23.2 The unmarked order of major constituents
			23.2.1 The immediately preverbal position
			23.2.2 Subjects and modal adverbs
			23.2.3 Objects
			23.2.4 Adverbial phrases
		23.3 Word order variations
			23.3.1 The position of focused constituents: the preverbal area
			23.3.2 The position of background information: the postverbal area
			23.3.3 The topic position
				23.3.3.1 Topic shifters
		23.4 Dislocated constituents
			23.4.1 Dislocated adjectival phrases
			23.4.2 Dislocated constituents of noun clauses
	24 Noun clauses
		24.1 Finite and non-finite noun clauses
		24.2 Bare finite noun clauses (finite noun clauses without a subordinator)
			24.2.1 Subject or object of the verb de-
			24.2.2 Interrogative sentence as subject or object of a verb of cognition
			24.2.3 Subject or object of the verb iste-
		24.3 Finite noun clauses with a subordinator
			24.3.1 Clauses formed with diye
			24.3.2 Clauses formed with ki
				24.3.2.1 Subject or object of the verb de-
				24.3.2.2 Subject or object of a verb of perception or cognition
				24.3.2.3 Subject or object of the verb iste-
				24.3.2.4 Subject of adjectival predicates
			24.3.3 Clauses formed with gibi
		24.4 Non-finite noun clauses
			24.4.1 Clauses formed with -mAK
				24.4.1.1 The non-case-marked form -mAk
				24.4.1.2 The accusative-marked form -mAyI
				24.4.1.3 The oblique case-marked forms: -mAyA, -mAktA (-mAdA) and -mAktAn
				24.4.1.4 Passive -mAk clauses as subjects
			24.4.2 Clauses formed with -mA-
				24.4.2.1 -mA without possessive suffixes
				24.4.2.2 -mA with possessive suffixes
			24.4.3 Clauses formed with -DIK or -(y)AcAK
				24.4.3.1 Indirect statements
				24.4.3.2 Indirect questions
				24.4.3.3 Other functions of -DIK/-(y)AcAK clauses
			24.4.4 Clauses formed with -(y)Iș
			24.4.5 Overlapping uses of -mA, -DIK/-(y)AcAK and -(y)Iș
				24.4.5.1 As direct object of verbs of perception or cognition
				24.4.5.2 As oblique object of verbs of emotion
			24.4.6 Omission of genitive marking on the subject of clauses formed with possessive-marked -mA or -DIK/-(y)AcAK
			24.4.7 The use of auxiliary ol- in non-finite noun clauses
		24.5 Small clauses
			24.5.1 Small clauses occurring with main clause transitive verbs
			24.5.2 Small clauses occurring with main clause intransitive verbs
			24.5.3 Tense/aspect and person marking
		24.6 Noun clauses as modifiers in -sI compounds
	25 Relative clauses
		25.1 Principles of relativization
			25.1.1 Markers of non-finite relative clauses: the participle suffixes
				25.1.1.1 -(y)An
				25.1.1.2 -DIK and -(y)AcAK
				25.1.1.3 Summary of strategies of relativization
			25.1.2 Relative clauses with embedded noun clauses
		25.2 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses
		25.3 Headless relative clauses
		25.4 The expression of tense and aspect in relative clauses
			25.4.1 The use of auxiliary ol- in relative clauses
				25.4.1.1 The omission of olan: truncated relative clauses
		25.5 Other complex adjectival constructions
		25.6 Finite relative clauses with ki
			25.6.1 ki in non-restrictive relative clauses
			25.6.2 ki in restrictive relative clauses
			25.6.3 Comment usage of ki
	26 Adverbial clauses
		26.1 Finite adverbial clauses
			26.1.1 Clauses formed with diye
				26.1.1.1 Reason
				26.1.1.2 Purpose
				26.1.1.3 Precaution
				26.1.1.4 Understanding
			26.1.2 Clauses formed with ki
				26.1.2.1 Location in time
				26.1.2.2 Purpose
				26.1.2.3 Result
				26.1.2.4 Basis for deduction
			26.1.3 Clauses formed with madem(ki)
			26.1.4 Clauses formed with nasıl ki
			26.1.5 Clauses formed with (sanki) . . . -mIș/-(y)mIș gibi
			26.1.6 Clauses formed with -DI mI
			26.1.7 Clauses formed with dA
		26.2 Non-finite adverbial clauses: structural characteristics
			26.2.1 Genitive case marking or its absence in the subject of a non-finite adverbial clause
			26.2.2 Possibility of the adverbial clause having a separate subject from that of the superordinate clause
			26.2.3 Tense and aspect marking in non-finite adverbial clauses
		26.3 Non-finite adverbial clauses: semantic classification
			26.3.1 Addition
			26.3.2 Agreement
			26.3.3 Concession
			26.3.4 Condition
			26.3.5 Conjunction
			26.3.6 Dismissal
			26.3.7 Information base for an utterance
			26.3.8 Manner
			26.3.9 Means
			26.3.10 Preference
			26.3.11 Proportionality
			26.3.12 Purpose
			26.3.13 Quantity or degree
			26.3.14 Reason
			26.3.15 Substitution
			26.3.16 Time
	27 Conditional sentences
		27.1 The grammatical marking of conditional clauses
			27.1.1 The verbal suffix -sA and the copular marker -(y)sA (or ise)
			27.1.2 The conditional conjunctions eğer and ∇șayet
		27.2 Predictive conditionals
			27.2.1 Aorist + -(y)sA
				27.2.1.1 Open conditionals
				27.2.1.2 Generic and habitual conditionals
				27.2.1.3 Compound forms with olursa
			27.2.2 Open and habitual conditionals expressed without aorist marking
			27.2.3 -sA
				27.2.3.1 -sA used without past copular marking of the main clause
				27.2.3.2 -sA used with past copular marking of the main clause
			27.2.4 -sAydI
			27.2.5 -sAymIș
			27.2.6 Compound forms with olsa/olsaydı/olsaymıș
		27.3 Knowable conditions
		27.4 Further uses of -sA and -(y)sA as subordinators
			27.4.1 -sA . . . -sA
			27.4.2 -sA and -(y)sA/ise with dA
				27.4.2.1 -sA with dA
				27.4.2.2 -(y)sA/ise with dA
		27.5 Universal conditional clauses (containing a question phrase)
			27.5.1 Universal conditional concessives
		27.6 Conditional constructions without conditional suffixes
			27.6.1 -DIğI takdirde, -mAsI durumunda/halinde
			27.6.2 -DI mI
	28 Conjunctions, co-ordination and discourse connection
		28.1 The juxtaposition of two or more constituents
		28.2 The subordinating suffixes -(y)Ip and -(y)ArAk
		28.3 Conjunctions and discourse connectives
			28.3.1 Additive
				28.3.1.1 ve, -(y)lA/ile, dA ‘and’, dA ‘too’, bile ‘even’, ve de ‘and what’s more’, bir de ‘and also’, ya ‘and what . . .’
				28.3.1.2 üstelik, üstüne üstlük, hem, hem (de), buna ek olarak, ayrıca, kaldı ki ‘and (what’s more)’, ‘also’, sonra ‘and then’
				28.3.1.3 hatta, dahası ‘even’, ‘indeed’
				28.3.1.4 șöyle dursun/bir yana/bırak(ın) ‘let alone’
			28.3.2 Enumerating
				dA . . . dA, hem . . . hem, gerek . . . (ve) gerek (se de) ‘both . . . and’
			28.3.3 Alternative
				28.3.3.1 ya da, veya, ∇(ve) yahut (da) yoksa ‘or’, ya . . . ya (da) ‘either . . . or’
				28.3.3.2 ister . . . ister, olsun . . . olsun, ha . . . ha, ama . . . ama ‘whether . . . or’
			28.3.4 Adversative
				28.3.4.1 ama, fakat, ancak, yalnız ‘but’
				28.3.4.2 gene (de)/yine (de) ‘(and) yet’, ‘(and) still’, bununla birlikte/beraber, buna karșın/rağmen ‘despite this’, ‘nevertheless’
				28.3.4.3 ne (var) ki/∇mamafih, ‘however’
				28.3.4.4 halbuki/oysa (ki), ‘whereas’, ‘however’
				28.3.4.5 dA, ya ‘but’, -(y)sA/ise ‘as for’, ‘whereas’
				28.3.4.6 gerçi/∇hoș ‘it’s true that’, ‘admittedly’, ‘actually’, aslında ‘actually’
				28.3.4.7 ki and ya
				28.3.4.8 peki ‘but’
				28.3.4.9 yok ‘but’
			28.3.5 Expansive
			28.3.6 Causal
			28.3.7 Inferential
			28.3.8 Temporal
			28.3.9 Conditional
			28.3.10 Organizational
			28.3.11 Corroborative
			28.3.12 Reminding
			28.3.13 Constructive
		28.4 The effects of co-ordination and discourse connection
			28.4.1 The elision of suffixes and clitics in co-ordinated constructions
				28.4.1.1 Omission of copular markers and person markers
				28.4.1.2 Omission of nominal inflectional markers
				28.4.1.3 Omission of other items: -(y)ken, bile, mI, ki
			28.4.2 The elision of phrases in co-ordinated constructions
				28.4.2.1 The elision of noun phrases in co-ordinated constructions
			28.4.3 The elision of noun phrases in other contexts
Appendix 1 Reduplicated stems
Appendix 2 Tense/aspect/modality suffixes
Glossary of grammatical terms
Bibliography
Index