Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles

Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface to the Fifth Edition......Page 32
About the Authors......Page 35
Part 1: Transport Processes: Momentum, Heat, and Mass......Page 36
1.1A Introduction......Page 37
1.1B Fundamental Transport Processes......Page 38
1.1C Classification of Separation Processes......Page 39
1.2 SI System of Basic Units Used in This Text and Other Systems......Page 40
1.2A SI System of Units......Page 41
1.2C English FPS System of Units......Page 42
1.2D Dimensionally Homogeneous Equations and Consistent Units......Page 43
1.3B Mole Units and Weight or Mass Units......Page 44
1.4A Pressure......Page 46
1.4B Ideal Gas Law......Page 47
1.4C Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 48
1.4D Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point of Liquids......Page 49
1.5A Conservation of Mass......Page 50
1.5B Simple Material Balances......Page 51
1.5C Material Balances and Recycle......Page 53
1.5D Material Balances and Chemical Reaction......Page 54
1.6B Heat Capacity......Page 57
1.6C Latent Heat and Steam Tables......Page 61
1.6D Heat of Reaction......Page 63
1.7B Heat Balances......Page 65
1.8B Numerical Integration and Simpson’s Rule......Page 72
1.9 Chapter Summary......Page 73
2.1 Introduction......Page 84
2.2A Force, Units, and Dimensions......Page 86
2.2B Pressure in a Fluid......Page 88
2.2C Head of a Fluid......Page 93
2.2D Devices to Measure Pressure and Pressure Differences......Page 94
2.3 Chapter Summary......Page 100
3.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 104
3.1A Newton’s Law of Viscosity......Page 105
3.1B Momentum Transfer in a Fluid......Page 108
3.1C Viscosities of Newtonian Fluids......Page 109
3.2B Laminar and Turbulent Flow......Page 111
3.2C Reynolds Number......Page 112
3.3 Chapter Summary......Page 115
4.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 120
4.1A Introduction and Simple Mass Balances......Page 121
4.1B Control Volume for Balances......Page 123
4.1C Overall Mass-Balance Equation......Page 124
4.1D Average Velocity to Use in Overall Mass Balance......Page 129
4.2A Introduction......Page 130
4.2B Derivation of Overall Energy-Balance Equation......Page 131
4.2C Overall Energy Balance for a Steady-State Flow System......Page 133
4.2D Kinetic-Energy Velocity Correction Factor α......Page 135
4.2E Applications of the Overall Energy-Balance Equation......Page 137
4.2F Overall Mechanical-Energy Balance......Page 140
4.2G Bernoulli Equation for Mechanical-Energy Balance......Page 145
4.3A Derivation of the General Equation......Page 149
4.3B Overall Momentum Balance in a Flow System in One Direction......Page 152
4.3C Overall Momentum Balance in Two Directions......Page 156
4.3D Overall Momentum Balance for a Free Jet Striking a Fixed Vane......Page 160
4.4A Introduction......Page 162
4.4B Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe......Page 163
4.4C Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film......Page 166
4.5 Chapter Summary......Page 170
5.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 184
5.1A Velocity Profiles in Pipes......Page 185
5.1B Pressure Drop and Friction Loss in Laminar Flow......Page 187
5.1C Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow......Page 191
5.1D Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in the Flow of Gases......Page 196
5.1E Effect of Heat Transfer on the Friction Factor......Page 198
5.1F Friction Losses in Expansion, Contraction, and Pipe Fittings......Page 199
5.1G Friction Loss in Noncircular Conduits......Page 208
5.1H Entrance Section of a Pipe......Page 209
5.1I Selection of Pipe Sizes......Page 211
5.2A Introduction and Basic Equation for Flow in Pipes......Page 212
5.2B Isothermal Compressible Flow......Page 213
5.2C Adiabatic Compressible Flow......Page 216
5.3A Pitot Tube......Page 217
5.3B Venturi Meter......Page 220
5.3C Orifice Meter......Page 223
5.3D Flow-Nozzle Meter......Page 226
5.3E Variable-Area Flow Meters (Rotameters)......Page 227
5.3F Other Types of Flow Meters......Page 228
5.3G Flow in Open Channels and Weirs......Page 229
5.4 Chapter Summary......Page 230
6.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 240
6.1A Definition of Drag Coefficient for Flow Past Immersed Objects......Page 241
6.1B Flow Past a Sphere, Long Cylinder, and Disk......Page 244
6.2 Flow in Packed Beds......Page 247
6.3 Flow in Fluidized Beds......Page 255
6.4 Chapter Summary......Page 263
7.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 270
7.1B Pumps......Page 271
7.1C Gas-Moving Machinery......Page 279
7.1D Equations for Compression of Gases......Page 281
7.2A Purposes of Agitation......Page 285
7.2B Equipment for Agitation......Page 286
7.2C Flow Patterns in Agitation......Page 289
7.2E Power Used in Agitated Vessels......Page 290
7.2F Agitator Scale-Up......Page 294
7.2G Mixing Times of Miscible Liquids......Page 299
7.2I Special Agitation Systems......Page 303
7.2J Mixing of Powders, Viscous Materials, and Pastes......Page 305
7.3 Chapter Summary......Page 307
8.1A Introduction......Page 314
8.1B Types of Time Derivatives and Vector Notation......Page 315
8.1C Differential Equation of Continuity......Page 318
8.2A Derivation of Equations of Momentum Transfer......Page 322
8.2B Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Varying Density and Viscosity......Page 325
8.2C Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Constant Density and Viscosity......Page 328
8.3B Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow Between Parallel Plates......Page 330
8.3C Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow in Stationary and Rotating Cylinders......Page 335
8.4 Chapter Summary......Page 343
9.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 348
9.1B Time-Independent Fluids......Page 349
9.1D Viscoelastic Fluids......Page 351
9.1E Laminar Flow of Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 352
9.2A Friction Losses in Contractions, Expansions, and Fittings in Laminar Flow......Page 357
9.2B Turbulent Flow and Generalized Friction Factors......Page 358
9.3 Velocity Profiles for Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 360
9.4 Determination of Flow Properties of Non-Newtonian Fluids Using a Rotational Viscometer......Page 365
9.5 Power Requirements in Agitation and Mixing of Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 368
9.6 Chapter Summary......Page 370
10.1A Introduction......Page 376
10.2 Stream Function......Page 377
10.3 Differential Equations of Motion for Ideal Fluids (Inviscid Flow)......Page 378
10.4 Potential Flow and Velocity Potential......Page 379
10.5 Differential Equations of Motion for Creeping Flow......Page 385
10.6 Chapter Summary......Page 386
11.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 391
11.1A Boundary-Layer Flow......Page 392
11.1B Boundary-Layer Separation and the Formation of Wakes......Page 393
11.1C Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory......Page 394
11.2A Nature and Intensity of Turbulence......Page 397
11.2B Turbulent Shear or Reynolds Stresses......Page 399
11.2C Prandtl Mixing Length......Page 400
11.2D Universal Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow......Page 402
11.3A Integral Momentum Balance for Boundary-Layer Analysis......Page 405
11.4 Chapter Summary......Page 409
12.1A Joule, Calorie, and Btu......Page 413
12.1B Heat Capacity......Page 414
12.1C Latent Heat and Steam Tables......Page 418
12.1D Heat of Reaction......Page 420
12.2B Heat Balances......Page 422
12.3A Introduction to Steady-State Heat Transfer......Page 429
12.3B Conduction as a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer......Page 431
12.3C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction......Page 432
12.3D Thermal Conductivity......Page 434
12.4A Convection as a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer......Page 437
12.4B Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient......Page 438
12.5 Radiation......Page 439
12.5A Radiation, a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer......Page 440
12.5B Radiation to a Small Object from Its Surroundings......Page 443
12.6A Plane Walls in Series......Page 444
12.6B Conduction Through Materials in Parallel......Page 447
12.6C Combined Radiation and Convection Heat Transfer......Page 448
12.7 Chapter Summary......Page 450
13.1A Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall (Some Review of Chapter 12)......Page 462
13.1B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder......Page 464
13.1C Multilayer Cylinders......Page 467
13.1D Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere......Page 469
13.2A Combined Convection, Conduction, and Overall Coefficients......Page 470
13.2B Log Mean Temperature Difference and Varying Temperature Drop......Page 474
13.2C Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder......Page 478
13.2D Contact Resistance at an Interface......Page 480
13.3A Conduction with Internal Heat Generation......Page 481
13.4A Introduction and Graphical Method for Two-Dimensional Conduction......Page 484
13.4B Shape Factors in Conduction......Page 486
13.5A Analytical Equation for Conduction......Page 488
13.5B Finite-Difference Numerical Methods......Page 490
13.6 Chapter Summary......Page 499
14.1A Introduction......Page 509
14.1B Derivation of the Unsteady-State Conduction Equation......Page 510
14.2A Basic Equation......Page 512
14.2B Equation for Different Geometries......Page 513
14.2C Total Amount of Heat Transferred......Page 515
14.3A Introduction and Analytical Methods......Page 516
14.3B Unsteady-State Conduction in a Semi-infinite Solid......Page 518
14.3C Unsteady-State Conduction in a Large Flat Plate......Page 522
14.3D Unsteady-State Conduction in a Long Cylinder......Page 528
14.3F Unsteady-State Conduction in Two- and Three-Dimensional Systems......Page 531
14.3G Charts for Average Temperature in a Plate, Cylinder, and Sphere with Negligible Surface Resistance......Page 536
14.4A Unsteady-State Conduction in a Slab......Page 538
14.4B Boundary Conditions for Numerical Method for a Slab......Page 541
14.4C Other Numerical Methods for Unsteady-State Conduction......Page 551
14.5 Chilling and Freezing of Food and Biological Materials......Page 553
14.5B Chilling of Food and Biological Materials......Page 554
14.5C Freezing of Food and Biological Materials......Page 557
14.6A Introduction......Page 561
14.6B Derivation of Differential Equation of Energy Change......Page 562
14.6C Special Cases of the Equation of Energy Change......Page 565
14.7 Chapter Summary......Page 567
15.1A Introduction to Convection (Review)......Page 580
15.1C Buckingham Method......Page 583
15.2A Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory in Heat Transfer......Page 586
15.2B Approximate Integral Analysis of the Thermal Boundary Layer......Page 590
15.2C Prandtl Mixing Length and Eddy Thermal Diffusivity......Page 591
15.3A Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Flow Inside a Pipe......Page 593
15.3B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Flow Inside a Pipe......Page 594
15.3C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Transition Flow Inside a Pipe......Page 598
15.3D Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Noncircular Conduits......Page 599
15.3F Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient......Page 602
15.4A Introduction......Page 604
15.4B Flow Parallel to a Flat Plate......Page 605
15.4C Cylinder with Axis Perpendicular to Flow......Page 606
15.4D Flow Past a Single Sphere......Page 607
15.4E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders......Page 608
15.4F Heat Transfer for Flow in Packed Beds......Page 612
15.5A Introduction......Page 613
15.5B Natural Convection from Various Geometries......Page 615
15.6A Boiling......Page 623
15.6B Condensation......Page 629
15.7A Introduction......Page 636
15.7B Heat Transfer Inside Tubes......Page 637
15.8A Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels......Page 641
15.8B Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers......Page 645
15.8C Extended Surface or Finned Exchangers......Page 647
15.9 Chapter Summary......Page 653
16.1 Types of Exchangers......Page 667
16.2 Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction Factors......Page 671
16.3 Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness......Page 675
16.4 Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values......Page 680
16.5 Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger......Page 682
16.6 Chapter Summary......Page 687
17.1A Introduction and Basic Equation for Radiation......Page 692
17.1B Radiation to a Small Object from Its Surroundings......Page 695
17.1C Effect of Radiation on the Temperature Measurement of a Gas......Page 696
17.2A Introduction and Radiation Spectrum......Page 698
17.2B Derivation of View Factors in Radiation for Various Geometries......Page 702
17.2D View Factors and Gray Bodies......Page 715
17.2E Radiation in Absorbing Gases......Page 718
17.3 Chapter Summary......Page 724
18.1A Similarity of Mass, Heat, and Momentum Transfer Processes......Page 731
18.1C Fick’s Law for Molecular Diffusion......Page 734
18.1D General Case for Diffusion of Gases A and B plus Convection......Page 738
18.2A Diffusion Coefficients for Gases......Page 740
18.2B Diffusion Coefficients for Liquids......Page 748
18.2C Prediction of Diffusivities in Liquids......Page 751
18.2D Prediction of Diffusivities of Electrolytes in Liquids......Page 754
18.2E Diffusion of Biological Solutes in Liquids......Page 757
18.3A Convective Mass-Transfer Coefficient......Page 762
18.4A Different Types of Fluxes and Fick’s Law......Page 763
18.4B Equation of Continuity for a Binary Mixture......Page 765
18.5 Chapter Summary......Page 767
19.1A Equimolar Counterdiffusion in Gases......Page 780
19.1B Special Case for A Diffusing Through Stagnant, Nondiffusing B......Page 783
19.1C Diffusion Through a Varying Cross-Sectional Area......Page 787
19.1D Multicomponent Diffusion of Gases......Page 791
19.2B Equations for Diffusion in Liquids......Page 793
19.3A Introduction and Types of Diffusion in Solids......Page 796
19.3B Diffusion in Solids Following Fick’s Law......Page 797
19.3C Diffusion in Porous Solids That Depends on Structure......Page 803
19.4A Introduction......Page 805
19.4B Knudsen Diffusion of Gases......Page 806
19.4C Molecular Diffusion of Gases......Page 808
19.4D Transition-Region Diffusion of Gases......Page 809
19.4E Flux Ratios for Diffusion of Gases in Capillaries......Page 811
19.4F Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids......Page 814
19.5 Diffusion in Biological Gels......Page 815
19.6A Special Cases of the General Diffusion Equation at Steady State......Page 818
19.7A Derivation of Equations for Numerical Methods......Page 825
19.7B Equations for Special Boundary Conditions for Numerical Method......Page 827
19.8 Chapter Summary......Page 834
20.1A Derivation of a Basic Equation......Page 852
20.1B Diffusion in a Flat Plate with Negligible Surface Resistance......Page 855
20.1C Unsteady-State Diffusion in Various Geometries......Page 857
20.2A Unsteady-State Diffusion and Reaction in a Semi-Infinite Medium......Page 862
20.3B Unsteady-State Numerical Methods for Diffusion......Page 864
20.3C Boundary Conditions for Numerical Methods for a Slab......Page 866
20.4 Chapter Summary......Page 872
21.1A Introduction to Convective Mass Transfer......Page 877
21.1B Types of Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 878
21.1C Mass-Transfer Coefficients for the General Case of A and B Diffusing and Convective Flow Using Film Theory......Page 884
21.1D Mass-Transfer Coefficients under High Flux Conditions......Page 885
21.2B Dimensional Analysis for Convective Mass Transfer......Page 888
21.3A Dimensionless Numbers Used to Correlate Data......Page 890
21.3B Analogies among Mass, Heat, and Momentum Transfer......Page 891
21.3C Derivation of Mass-Transfer Coefficients in Laminar Flow......Page 894
21.3D Mass Transfer for Flow Inside Pipes......Page 898
21.3E Mass Transfer for Flow Outside Solid Surfaces......Page 900
21.4A Introduction......Page 911
21.4B Equations for Mass Transfer to Small Particles......Page 912
21.5A Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory in Mass Transfer......Page 915
21.5B Prandtl Mixing Length and Turbulent Eddy Mass Diffusivity......Page 919
21.5C Models for Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 920
21.6 Chapter Summary......Page 922
Part 2: Separation Process Principles......Page 935
22.1A Phase Rule and Equilibrium......Page 936
22.1B Gas–Liquid Equilibrium......Page 937
22.1C Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact......Page 939
22.1D Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for a Gas–Liquid System......Page 940
22.1E Countercurrent Multiple-Contact Stages......Page 942
22.1F Analytical Equations for Countercurrent Stage Contact......Page 947
22.1G Introduction and Equilibrium Relations......Page 950
22.1H Concentration Profiles in Interphase Mass Transfer......Page 951
22.1I Mass Transfer Using Film Mass-Transfer Coefficients and Interface Concentrations......Page 953
22.1J Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients and Driving Forces......Page 958
22.2B Equipment for Absorption and Distillation......Page 964
22.3 Pressure Drop and Flooding in Packed Towers......Page 968
22.4 Design of Plate Absorption Towers......Page 976
22.5A Introduction to Design of Packed Towers for Absorption......Page 979
22.5B Simplified Design Methods for Absorption of Dilute Gas Mixtures in Packed Towers......Page 988
22.5C Design of Packed Towers Using Transfer Units......Page 996
22.6A Calculating the Efficiency of Random-Packed and Structured Packed Towers......Page 1002
22.6B Estimation of Efficiencies of Tray and Packed Towers......Page 1003
22.7 Absorption of Concentrated Mixtures in Packed Towers......Page 1006
22.8A Experimental Determination of Film Coefficients......Page 1013
22.8B Correlations for Film Coefficients......Page 1014
22.8C Predicting Mass-Transfer Film Coefficients......Page 1015
22.9A Heat Effects in Absorption......Page 1018
22.9B Simplified Design Method......Page 1019
22.10 Chapter Summary......Page 1022
23.1A Vapor Pressure of Water......Page 1036
23.1B Humidity and a Humidity Chart......Page 1037
23.1C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures......Page 1044
23.1D Wet Bulb Temperature......Page 1046
23.2 Introduction and Types of Equipment for Humidification......Page 1048
23.3A Theory and Calculations for Cooling-Water Towers......Page 1050
23.3B Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using Film Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 1054
23.3C Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 1056
23.3D Minimum Value of Air Flow......Page 1059
23.3E Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using the Height of a Transfer Unit......Page 1060
23.4 Chapter Summary......Page 1061
24.1A Introduction......Page 1068
24.1B Types of Filtration Equipment......Page 1069
24.2A Introduction to the Basic Theory of Filtration......Page 1077
24.2B Filtration Equations for Constant-Pressure Filtration......Page 1081
24.2C Filtration Equations for Constant-Rate Filtration......Page 1090
24.3B Classification of Membrane Processes......Page 1091
24.4B Models for Microfiltration......Page 1093
24.5A Introduction......Page 1095
24.5C Flux Equations for Ultrafiltration......Page 1096
24.5D Effects of Processing Variables in Ultrafiltration......Page 1099
24.6A Introduction......Page 1100
24.6B Flux Equations for Reverse Osmosis......Page 1104
24.6C Effects of Operating Variables......Page 1109
24.6D Concentration Polarization in Reverse-Osmosis Diffusion Model......Page 1111
24.6F Types of Equipment for Reverse Osmosis......Page 1112
24.6G Complete-Mixing Model for Reverse Osmosis......Page 1113
24.7A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes......Page 1115
24.7C Types of Equipment for Dialysis......Page 1118
24.7D Hemodialysis in an Artificial Kidney......Page 1119
24.8 Chapter Summary......Page 1120
25.1A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes......Page 1131
25.1B Types of Membranes and Permeabilities for Separation of Gases......Page 1132
25.1C Types of Equipment for Gas-Permeation Membrane Processes......Page 1135
25.1D Introduction to Types of Flow in Gas Permeation......Page 1138
25.2A Basic Equations Used......Page 1140
25.2B Solution of Equations for Design of a Complete-Mixing Case......Page 1142
25.2C Minimum Concentration of Reject Stream......Page 1147
25.3A Derivation of Equations......Page 1148
25.3B Iteration Solution Procedure for Multicomponent Mixtures......Page 1149
25.4A Derivation of the Basic Equations......Page 1152
25.4B Procedure for Design of Cross-Flow Case......Page 1155
25.5A Concentration Gradients in Membranes......Page 1160
25.5B Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent Flow in Dense-Phase Symmetric Membranes......Page 1161
25.5C Solution of Countercurrent Flow Equations in Dense-Phase Symmetric Membranes......Page 1164
25.5D Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent Flow in Asymmetric Membranes......Page 1165
25.5E Derivation of Equations for Cocurrent Flow in Asymmetric Membranes......Page 1167
25.5F Effects of Processing Variables on Gas Separation......Page 1168
25.6A Countercurrent Flow......Page 1172
25.6B Short-Cut Numerical Method......Page 1174
25.6C Use of a Spreadsheet for the Finite-Difference Numerical Method......Page 1181
25.6D Calculation of Pressure-Drop Effects on Permeation......Page 1182
25.7 Chapter Summary......Page 1186
26.1A Phase Rule and Raoult’s Law......Page 1196
26.1B Boiling-Point Diagrams and x-y Plots......Page 1197
26.2A Equipment for Distillation......Page 1200
26.2B Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor–Liquid System......Page 1204
26.3A Introduction......Page 1206
26.3B Relative Volatility of Vapor–Liquid Systems......Page 1207
26.3C Equilibrium or Flash Distillation......Page 1208
26.3D Simple Batch or Differential Distillation......Page 1210
26.3E Simple Steam Distillation......Page 1213
26.4A Introduction to Distillation with Reflux......Page 1214
26.4B McCabe–Thiele Method of Calculation for the Number of Theoretical Stages......Page 1217
26.4C Total and Minimum Reflux Ratio for McCabe–Thiele Method......Page 1228
26.4D Special Cases for Rectification Using the McCabe–Thiele Method......Page 1233
26.5 Tray Efficiencies......Page 1242
26.5B Types of Tray Efficiencies......Page 1243
26.5C Relationship Between Tray Efficiencies......Page 1245
26.6A Flooding Velocity and Diameter of Tray Towers......Page 1246
26.6B Condenser and Reboiler Duties Using the McCabe–Thiele Method......Page 1249
26.7A Enthalpy–Concentration Data......Page 1250
26.7B Distillation in the Enriching Section of a Tower......Page 1254
26.7C Distillation in the Stripping Section of a Tower......Page 1256
26.8A Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1263
26.8B Equilibrium Data in Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1265
26.8C Boiling Point, Dew Point, and Flash Distillation......Page 1268
26.8E Total Reflux for Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1270
26.8F Shortcut Method for the Minimum Reflux Ratio for Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1275
26.8G Shortcut Method for Number of Stages at Operating Reflux Ratio......Page 1276
26.9 Chapter Summary......Page 1280
27.1A Introduction to Extraction Processes......Page 1297
27.1B Equilibrium Relations in Extraction......Page 1298
27.2A Single-Stage Equilibrium Extraction......Page 1302
27.3B Mixer–Settlers for Extraction......Page 1306
27.3C Spray Extraction Towers......Page 1307
27.3D Packed Extraction Towers......Page 1308
27.3E Perforated-Plate (Sieve-Tray) Extraction Towers......Page 1314
27.3F Pulsed Packed and Sieve-Tray Towers......Page 1315
27.3G Mechanically Agitated Extraction Towers......Page 1316
27.4A Introduction......Page 1318
27.4B Continuous Multistage Countercurrent Extraction......Page 1319
27.4C Countercurrent-Stage Extraction with Immiscible Liquids......Page 1326
27.4D Design of Towers for Extraction......Page 1329
27.4E Design of Packed Towers for Extraction Using Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 1331
27.5 Chapter Summary......Page 1336
28.1A Introduction......Page 1345
28.1B Physical Properties of Adsorbents......Page 1346
28.1C Equilibrium Relations for Adsorbents......Page 1347
28.2 Batch Adsorption......Page 1350
28.3A Introduction and Concentration Profiles......Page 1351
28.3B Breakthrough Concentration Curve......Page 1353
28.3D Capacity of Column and Scale-Up Design Method......Page 1354
28.3E Basic Models for Predicting Adsorption......Page 1359
28.3F Processing Variables and Adsorption Cycles......Page 1360
28.4A Introduction and Ion-Exchange Materials......Page 1361
28.4B Equilibrium Relations in Ion Exchange......Page 1362
28.4C Use of Equilibrium Relations and Relative-Molar-Selectivity Coefficients......Page 1363
28.4E Capacity of Columns and Scale-Up Design Method......Page 1367
28.5 Chapter Summary......Page 1370
29.1A Crystallization and Types of Crystals......Page 1375
29.1B Equilibrium Solubility in Crystallization......Page 1377
29.1C Yields, Material, and Energy Balances in Crystallization......Page 1378
29.1D Equipment for Crystallization......Page 1382
29.2B Nucleation Theories......Page 1385
29.2C Rate of Crystal Growth and the ΔL Law......Page 1386
29.2D Particle Size Distribution of Crystals......Page 1388
29.2E Model for Mixed Suspension–Mixed Product Removal Crystallizer......Page 1389
29.3B Particle Size Measurement......Page 1396
29.3C Energy and Power Required in Size Reduction......Page 1397
29.3D Equipment for Particle Size Reduction......Page 1400
29.4 Chapter Summary......Page 1403
30.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 1410
30.1B Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid......Page 1411
30.1C Hindered Settling......Page 1417
30.1E Differential Settling and Separation of Solids in Classification......Page 1420
30.1F Sedimentation and Thickening......Page 1425
30.1G Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation......Page 1427
30.2A Introduction......Page 1430
30.2B Forces Developed in Centrifugal Separation......Page 1431
30.2C Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges......Page 1434
30.2E Centrifugal Filtration......Page 1442
30.2F Gas–Solid Cyclone Separators......Page 1445
30.3 Chapter Summary......Page 1448
31.1A Leaching Processes......Page 1456
31.1B Preparation of Solids for Leaching......Page 1457
31.1C Rates of Leaching......Page 1458
31.1D Types of Equipment for Leaching......Page 1462
31.2 Equilibrium Relations and Single-Stage Leaching......Page 1465
31.2A Equilibrium Relations in Leaching......Page 1466
31.2B Single-Stage Leaching......Page 1469
31.3A Introduction and Operating Line for Countercurrent Leaching......Page 1471
31.3B Variable Underflow in Countercurrent Multistage Leaching......Page 1473
31.4 Chapter Summary......Page 1478
32.1A Purpose......Page 1483
32.1B Processing Factors......Page 1484
32.2A General Types of Evaporators......Page 1486
32.2B Methods of Evaporator Operations......Page 1490
32.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators......Page 1493
32.4A Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators......Page 1495
32.4C Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions......Page 1499
32.4D Enthalpy–Concentration Charts of Solutions......Page 1501
32.5A Introduction......Page 1505
32.5B Temperature Drops and Capacity of Multiple-Effect Evaporators......Page 1506
32.5C Calculations for Multiple-Effect Evaporators......Page 1507
32.5D Step-by-Step Calculation Methods for Triple-Effect Evaporators......Page 1508
32.6B Surface Condensers......Page 1518
32.6C Direct-Contact Condensers......Page 1519
32.7A Introduction and Properties of Biological Materials......Page 1520
32.7B Fruit Juices......Page 1521
32.8A Introduction......Page 1522
32.8B Mechanical Vapor-Recompression Evaporator......Page 1523
32.9 Chapter Summary......Page 1524
33.1A Purposes of Drying......Page 1532
33.2A Tray Dryer......Page 1533
33.2B Vacuum-Shelf Indirect Dryers......Page 1534
33.2C Continuous Tunnel Dryers......Page 1535
33.2E Drum Dryers......Page 1536
33.2G Drying Crops and Grains......Page 1537
33.3A Vapor Pressure of Water......Page 1539
33.3B Humidity and Humidity Chart......Page 1540
33.3C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures......Page 1546
33.3D Wet Bulb Temperature......Page 1548
33.4A Introduction......Page 1551
33.4B Experimental Data of Equilibrium Moisture Content for Inorganic and Biological Materials......Page 1552
33.4C Bound and Unbound Water in Solids......Page 1554
33.5 Rate-of-Drying Curves......Page 1555
33.5B Rate of Drying Curves for Constant-Drying Conditions......Page 1556
33.5C Drying in the Constant-Rate Period......Page 1559
33.5E Moisture Movements in Solids During Drying in the Falling-Rate Period......Page 1560
33.6A Method for Using an Experimental Drying Curve......Page 1563
33.6B Method Using Predicted Transfer Coefficients for Constant-Rate Period......Page 1565
33.6C Effect of Process Variables on a Constant-Rate Period......Page 1569
33.7A Method Using Numerical Integration......Page 1571
33.7B Calculation Methods for Special Cases in Falling-Rate Region......Page 1573
33.8B Derivation of the Equation for Convection, Conduction, and Radiation......Page 1575
33.9 Drying in the Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow......Page 1579
33.9B Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying......Page 1580
33.9C Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying......Page 1583
33.9D Comparison of Liquid Diffusion and Capillary Flow......Page 1584
33.10A Through-Circulation Drying in Packed Beds......Page 1588
33.10B Tray Drying with Varying Air Conditions......Page 1596
33.10C Material and Heat Balances for Continuous Dryers......Page 1597
33.10D Continuous Countercurrent Drying......Page 1601
33.11A Introduction......Page 1604
33.11B Derivation of Equations for Freeze-Drying......Page 1605
33.12A Introduction......Page 1610
33.12B Thermal Death-Rate Kinetics of Microorganisms......Page 1611
33.12C Determination of Thermal Process Time for Sterilization......Page 1613
33.12D Sterilization Methods Using Other Design Criteria......Page 1618
33.12E Pasteurization......Page 1619
33.13 Chapter Summary......Page 1621
Part 3: Appendixes......Page 1635
Appendix A.1 Fundamental Constants and Conversion Factors......Page 1636
Appendix A.2 Physical Properties of Water......Page 1642
Appendix A.3 Physical Properties of Inorganic and Organic Compounds......Page 1656
Appendix A.4 Physical Properties of Foods and Biological Materials......Page 1683
Appendix A.5 Properties of Pipes, Tubes, and Screens......Page 1688
Appendix A.6 Lennard-Jones Potentials as Determined from Viscosity Data......Page 1692
Notation......Page 1695
Index......Page 1714