Tigris and Euphrates Rivers: Their Environment from Headwaters to Mouth

Preface
Contributors
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editor
Chapter 1: Introduction
	1.1 There Were a Civilization
	1.2 Highlights on the Climate of Mesopotamia
	1.3 Groundwater Depletion and Drought, Two Crises to Confront
	1.4 International Law Perspective of the Waters of Euphrates-Tigris Rivers
	1.5 Towards Restoring of the Riverine Landscapes
	References
Part I: Historical Perspectives
	Chapter 2: Vertebrates of Upper Mesopotamia: Present Evidence and Archaeological Data
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Biogeographical Features
		2.3 A Vanished World
		2.4 The Beavers in the Khabur-Euphrates Basin
		2.5 Extant Fauna. Mammals
		2.6 Birds and Reptiles
		2.7 Inside the Rivers and Along Their Shores
		2.8 Vanishing Wild Boars
		2.9 Mesopotamian Otters
		2.10 Middle and Far Eastern Mongooses
		2.11 Aliens from the Indian Subcontinent and Beyond
		2.12 Deer of Mesopotamia
		2.13 Monkeys
		2.14 Syrian Elephants
		2.15 The Water Buffalo
		2.16 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 3: Fishing Gears and Methods: A Comparison of Ancient Mesopotamia and Other Ancient Worlds
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Fish as a Commercial Commodity
		3.3 The Role of Fish Remains in Defining Fishing Gear and Sites
		3.4 Fishing Gear and Practices
		3.5 Similarities and Differences Between the Fishing Gears of Mesopotamia and the Other Ancient Regions of the World
		References
	Chapter 4: Ichthyological Characteristics Available in the Fish Images Existed in the Art of the Ancient Mesopotamia
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Chronology of Mesopotamia and Egypt
		4.3 Ichthyological Terms
		4.4 Ichthyological Description of the Fish Images
		4.5 Comparison of the Inclusion of the Ichthyological Features in the Fish Images Drawn by the Ancient Mesopotamian and Egypti...
		Appendix 1. Chronology of Mesopotamia
		Appendix 2. Chronology of Ancient Egypt (Hawass 2019)
		References
	Chapter 5: The Effectiveness of Ancient Mesopotamian Medical Practices: The Example of susu-Licorice
		5.1 Ancient Mesopotamian Uses of susu-Licorice in Modern Perspective
		5.2 What About Accidental Poisonings by Licorice?
		5.3 Conclusion
		References
		Mesopotamian Medicine
		Glycyrrhiza glabra/uralensis/inflata, etc in ``Traditional´´ Medicine
		Articles
		Glycyrrhiza sp. in Modern Medicine
		Articles
Part II: The Abiotic Aspects of the Tigris-Euphrates River System
	Chapter 6: Management of Water Resources Using Storage Reservoirs
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Climatic and Hydrologic Conditions
		6.3 Traditional Operation of Major Reservoirs
		6.4 Multiple Criteria Optimization of Parametric Reservoir Operating Rule
			6.4.1 Multiple Criteria Analysis
		6.5 Game Theoretic Approach
			6.5.1 Bargaining as an Important Aspect in Water Resources Allocation in Iraq
			6.5.2 Extensive-Form Game with Imperfect Information
			6.5.3 Modeling the Decision-Making Process
			6.5.4 Uncertainty Regarding Nature and Players´ Decision
			6.5.5 Modeling Players´ Payoff
			6.5.6 Players´ Rational Decisions Constituting Equilibrium
		6.6 Summary and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 7: Estimation of Irrigated Agricultural Area and Water Consumption in Iraq
		7.1 Introduction
			7.1.1 Transboundary Water Dispute Over Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
			7.1.2 Objectives of This Chapter
		7.2 Framework of the Study
			7.2.1 Overview of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
			7.2.2 Target AREA and Period of the Study
		7.3 Estimation of Irrigated Agricultural Land of Iraq Using Satellite Remote Sensing Imageries
			7.3.1 Materials and Methods
			7.3.2 Results and Discussions
		7.4 Water Budget Analysis of Iraq
			7.4.1 Conceptualization of Water Balance of Study Area
			7.4.2 Materials and Methods
			7.4.3 Results and Discussions
		7.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: The Nature of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers Flow: Current Status and Future Prospective
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 The Hydrological Characteristic of the Tigris-Euphrates Basin
			8.2.1 Tigris River Sketch
			8.2.2 Euphrates River Sketch
		8.3 Tigris-Euphrates Rivers Flow Patterns
		8.4 Evaluation and Future Prospective
		References
	Chapter 9: Streamflow Alteration Impacts with Particular Reference to the Lower Zab River, Tributary of the Tigris River
		9.1 Introduction
			9.1.1 Background
			9.1.2 Rationale, Aim, Objectives, and Importance
		9.2 Materials and Methods
			9.2.1 Illustrative Case Study Area
			9.2.2 Data Availability, Collection, and Analysis
			9.2.3 Drought Identification
			9.2.4 Hydrograph Analysis
			9.2.5 Reservoir Capacity-Yield Simulation and Performance Indices
			9.2.6 Methodology Application
		9.3 Results and Discussion
			9.3.1 Long-Term Hydro-Climatic Data Changes
			9.3.2 Drought Identification and Classification
			9.3.3 Anthropogenic Intervention Impact
				9.3.3.1 Streamflow
				9.3.3.2 Baseflow Contribution
			9.3.4 Climate Change Impact
				9.3.4.1 Baseflow Contribution
				9.3.4.2 Streamflow and Reservoir Performance
		9.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 10: Ecohydrology in Iraq: Challenges and its Future Pathways
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Matters on Water, Habitats, and Communal Growth in Iraq
		10.3 The Existing Ecohydrology Uses and their Tests in Iraq
		10.4 Developing Chances
		10.5 Ecohydrology and the Freshwater Fish Biodiversity in Iraq
		10.6 Ecohydrology and Fisheries Management in Iraq
		10.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 11: Oil Pollution in the Shatt Al-Arab River and its Estuary 1980-2018
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Water Quality
		11.3 Water Pollution
		11.4 Water Pollution of the Shatt Al-Arab River
		11.5 Materials and Methods Usually Used for Oil Pollution
			11.5.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Water
				11.5.1.1 PHC´s in the Dissolved Phase of Water
				11.5.1.2 PHC´s Extraction as Suspended Particulate Matter
				11.5.1.3 PHC´s in Sediments
				11.5.1.4 PHC´s in Fish Samples
		11.6 Results and Discussion
		11.7 Conclusion
		11.8 Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 12: Pesticides in the Waters, Sediments, and Biota of the Shatt Al-Arab River for the Period 1980-2017
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Methodology
			12.2.1 Study Area
			12.2.2 Materials
			12.2.3 Sample Collection
			12.2.4 Extraction of Pesticides in Environmental Samples
				12.2.4.1 Water Samples
				12.2.4.2 Sediment Samples
				12.2.4.3 Fish Samples
			12.2.5 Analysis
		12.3 Results and Discussion
			12.3.1 Organochlorine Pesticides in Water
			12.3.2 Organochlorine Pesticides in Sediments
			12.3.3 Organochlorine Pesticides in Fishes
		12.4 Comparison with Worldwide Levels
		12.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: Surface Water Salinity of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Shatt al-Arab Rivers
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Tigris River
			13.2.1 Tigris River Hydrology
			13.2.2 Salinity and the Alteration of the River Flow Regime
			13.2.3 Salinity of the Tigris River
				13.2.3.1 Historical Review
				13.2.3.2 Recent Salinity Analysis
				13.2.3.3 Longitudinal Salinity Profile
			13.2.4 Lake Tharthar
		13.3 The Euphrates River
			13.3.1 Euphrates River Hydrology
			13.3.2 The Euphrates Salinity
				13.3.2.1 History of Salinity Variation
				13.3.2.2 Recent Changes in Salinity
				13.3.2.3 The Euphrates Salinity Profile within Iraq
			13.3.3 The Euphrates Salinity Causes within Iraq
				13.3.3.1 Decrease of Inflow from the Upper Euphrates
				13.3.3.2 Flow Diversion from the Tigris Through Lake Tharthar to the Euphrates
				13.3.3.3 Iraqi Irrigation Return Flow
				13.3.3.4 Groundwater Discharge
		13.4 Shatt al-Arab Waterway
			13.4.1 Hydrology of Shatt al-Arab
			13.4.2 Salinity of Shatt al-Arab
				13.4.2.1 Salinity Issues for the Shatt al-Arab
				13.4.2.2 Salinity Analysis at Basra
				13.4.2.3 The Shatt al-Arab and the Marshes
		13.5 Water Salinity Management Options
		References
	Chapter 14: Renewable Energy for Water-Energy Nexus in Euphrates and Tigris River Basin: A Literature Review
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Water-Energy Nexus
		14.3 Quantifying Water-Energy Nexus
			14.3.1 Water Usage in Energy Production
				14.3.1.1 Water in Hydropower Stations
				14.3.1.2 Water in Thermal Power Stations
				14.3.1.3 Water in Bioenergy
				14.3.1.4 Water in Fossil Energy Extraction and Distribution
			14.3.2 Energy Consumption in the Water Sector
		14.4 Renewable Energy in the ETRB
			14.4.1 Renewables for Power; Resources, Current Trend and Potentials in the ETRB
				14.4.1.1 Hydropower
				14.4.1.2 Solar Energy
				14.4.1.3 Wind Energy Resources
				14.4.1.4 Biomass Energy Resources and Biofuels
				14.4.1.5 Geothermal Energy Resources
				14.4.1.6 Ocean, Wave and Tide Resources
				14.4.1.7 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
				14.4.1.8 Summary of the Renewables Status in the ETRB Riparian States
			14.4.2 Energy Storage Technologies
			14.4.3 Renewables for Water Technologies
				14.4.3.1 Renewable Energy in Waste Treatment
				14.4.3.2 Renewable Energy in Water Pumping and Conveyance
				14.4.3.3 Renewable Energy for Heat
		14.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 15: Impacts of Dams on Aquatic Biodiversity, Fisheries, Fishes and Their Environment: Problems that Could Be Present i...
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Ancient Mesopotamians and Irrigation Problems
		15.3 Impacts of Dams
			15.3.1 Ecological Impacts
				15.3.1.1 Impact on Water Temperature
				15.3.1.2 Impact on Sediment Transport
				15.3.1.3 Impact on Connectivity
				15.3.1.4 Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles
			15.3.2 Impact on the Organisms
				15.3.2.1 Impact on Plankton
				15.3.2.2 Impact on Macroinvertebrates
				15.3.2.3 Impact on Fishes
			15.3.3 Impact on Fish Migration
			15.3.4 Impact on Aquatic Biodiversity
		15.4 Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 16: Water, Politics and Dams in the Mesopotamia Basin of the Northern Middle East: How Turkey Instrumentalises the Sou...
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Background
		16.3 Doing Politics with Dams: The Economic Response
		16.4 Doing Politics with Dams: The Security Response
		16.5 Forced Migration
		16.6 The Northern Middle East
		16.7 Transnational Conflicts
		16.8 Conclusions
		Bibliography
	Chapter 17: Dams and their Impacts on Fishes in Iran
		17.1 Brief Overview of Dam Impacts
		17.2 Damming History and Dams in Iran
		17.3 How Did Dams Change Aquatic Ecosystems in Iran?
		17.4 Freshwater Fishes of Iran
		17.5 Artificial Reservoirs, Suitable Habitats for Exotic Species
		17.6 Dams Impact on Fish Diversity and Richness in Iran
		17.7 Dams Impacts on Migratory Fishes in Iran
		17.8 Morphologic and Genetic Differentiation in Fishes Caused by Dams
		17.9 Dam Impacts on Fish Population Structures and Biological Characteristics
		17.10 What Can We do in Regard to the Irresponsible Damming?
		References
Part III: The Biotic Aspects of the Tigris-Euphrates River System
	Chapter 18: Preliminary Review of the Aquatic Biodiversity in Al-Kahla River, Missan Province, Iraq
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 The Biodiversity of Aquatic Micro-organisms of Al-Kahla River
			18.2.1 Fungi Groups
				18.2.1.1 The Role of Fungi in the Ecosystem
				18.2.1.2 Threats and Sensitivities
			18.2.2 Flora of Micro-Algae
				18.2.2.1 The Role of Micro-Algae in the Ecosystem
				18.2.2.2 Threats and Sensitivities
			18.2.3 Zooplankton
				18.2.3.1 Role and Importance of Zooplankton in the Freshwater Ecosystem
					Threats and Sensitivities
			18.2.4 Meiofauna
				18.2.4.1 Significance of Meiofauna in Al-Kahla River Ecosystem
					Threats and Sensitivities
		18.3 Mosses and Ferns in the River Al-Kahla
		18.4 Flora of Higher Aquatic Plants
			18.4.1 Role of Aquatic Macrophytes in the Riverine Environment
				18.4.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities
		18.5 Invertebrate Fauna
			18.5.1 Role of Invertebrates in the Freshwater System
			18.5.2 Endemic and Threatened Invertebrate Species in Al-Kahla River
				18.5.2.1 Threats and Sensitivities
		18.6 The Vertebrate Fauna of Al-Kahla River
			18.6.1 Ichthyofauna
				18.6.1.1 Freshwater Fish Species
					Exotic Fish Species in the Marshes
					Marine Fish Species
			18.6.2 The Use of Inland Water System as Necessary Grounds for Fish
			18.6.3 Human Use of Fish
			18.6.4 Threats and Sensitivities
		18.7 Herpetofauna of the Al-Kahla River
			18.7.1 Role of Amphibian and Reptilian Species in the Aquatic Environment
				18.7.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities
		18.8 Aquatic Avifauna of Al-Kahla River
			18.8.1 The Role of Aquatic Birds in the River Environment
				18.8.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities
		18.9 Mammals Living in the Vicinity of Al-Kahla River
			18.9.1 The Role of Mammals in the River Environment
				18.9.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities
		18.10 Factors Affecting the Aquatic Biodiversity of Al-Kahla River Other than Changing Water Masses
		References
	Chapter 19: Freshwater Fish Biodiversity in Iraq: Importance, Threats, Status, and Conservation Challenges
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Iraq Freshwater Riches
			19.2.1 Fishes
				19.2.1.1 Freshwater Fish Diversity
				19.2.1.2 Discrepancies in the Nomenclature of the Freshwater Fish of Iraq Over Time
				19.2.1.3 Competition with the Native Species
				19.2.1.4 Range Extension
				19.2.1.5 Endangered Freshwater Fishes of Iraq
					Groups of the Threatened Fishes of Iraq
				19.2.1.6 Threats
				19.2.1.7 The Advantageous the Iraq Freshwater Fish Biodiversity
				19.2.1.8 Conservation Measures
		References
	Chapter 20: Effect of Climate Changes on the Freshwater Biodiversity in the Mesopotamian Plain: Recommendations for Avoidance ...
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Historical Record of the Climatic Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain
		20.3 The Current Climate of the Mesopotamian Plain
		20.4 Predictable Designs of Climate Alteration and Freshwater Habitats
		20.5 Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Mesopotamian Plain
			20.5.1 Effects of Climate Change on Flow of Rivers
			20.5.2 Expected Changes to the Rainfall and Internal Water Resources in the Mesopotamian Plain
		20.6 Anthropogenic Impacts and the Climate Changes
			20.6.1 Acidification
			20.6.2 Eutrophication
			20.6.3 Land Cover Alterations
			20.6.4 Alien Species
		20.7 Species Adaptation to Climate Changes in Freshwater Biodiversity and Conservation
			20.7.1 Protected Areas
			20.7.2 Large and Environmentally Heterogeneous Areas
			20.7.3 Species Dispersal Paths
			20.7.4 Environment Restoration and Controlling
		20.8 Suggested Recommendations for Management of the Climatic Changes Effects on the Freshwater Ecosystem in the Mesopotamian ...
		References
	Chapter 21: River Corridors as a Refuge for Freshwater Biodiversity: Basic Information and Recommendations to the Policymakers...
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 The Contribution of Streams and Springs to Biodiversity in River Networks
		21.3 River Corridors
			21.3.1 Planning to Build River´s Corridor
			21.3.2 How to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Corridor
		21.4 Public Awareness of River Corridors
		21.5 Protection of River Corridors
		21.6 Recommendations to the Policymakers in Iraq About Creating River Corridors in Their Country
		References
	Chapter 22: Biodiversity of Fungi in Aquatic Environment of Iraq
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Taxonomic Studies on Aquatic Fungi of Iraq
		22.3 Ecological Studies on Aquatic Fungi
		22.4 Biodiversity of Aquatic Fungi of Iraq
		22.5 Fungi from Submerged Substrates in Aquatic Habitats of Iraq
		22.6 Transient Fungi in Aquatic Habitats of Iraq
		22.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 23: Potability of Drinking Water in Basra-Iraq
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Water Supplies to Basrah
		23.3 Chemical Analysis
			23.3.1 Total Dissolved Solids
			23.3.2 Bacteriological Studies
		23.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 24: Algal Studies in Iraqi Inland Waters. A Review
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Brief History of Algal Studies in Iraq
		24.3 The Present Status of Algal Studies in Iraq
		24.4 Remarks and Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 25: The Distribution of Epilitic Diatoms in the Turkish Part of the Tigris-Euphrates River Basin
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Materials and Methods
			25.2.1 Sample Collection
			25.2.2 Sample Processing, Observation, and Identification
			25.2.3 Diatom Abundance
		25.3 Results
		25.4 Discussion
		References
	Chapter 26: Plant Biodiversity in Shatt Al-Arab Estuary and Ecological Variations
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 History of Shatt al-Arab River
		26.3 Geomorphology of Shatt al-Arab
		26.4 Salinity in Shatt al-Arab River
		26.5 Climate Changes and Challenges
		26.6 Pollution in Shatt al-Arab River
		26.7 Plants of Shatt al-Arab River and Its Branches
		References
	Chapter 27: Medicinal Plants of Shatt al-Arab River and Adjacent Area
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Historical Review
		27.3 The Ecology of Medicinal Plants
		27.4 Description and Therapeutic Value of Plants
		Recommended literature
	Chapter 28: The Role of Plants as a Canopy in the Inland Waters: Basic Information for Application in Iraq
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 The Role of Stream Bank Plantation in Improving and Protecting Chemical Water Quality
		28.3 The Date Palm: THE Main Canopy Vegetation in Stream Area in Iraq
		28.4 Socioeconomic and Traditional Importance of Dates
		28.5 Degradation of Date Palm Trees in the Arab Countries: Indicators and Causes
		28.6 Wildfire as an Ecological Factor for Streams
		28.7 Effect of Fire on the Soil of the Stream: Case of the Southern Marshes of Iraq
		28.8 Decreasing Plant Cover Due to the Environmental Changes: Case of Southern of Iraq
		28.9 Why Restorations are Needed
		References
	Chapter 29: The Zooplankton Fauna of the Turkish Part of the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 Materials and Methods
		29.3 Results and Discussion
		References
	Chapter 30: Kinds and Distribution of Icthyoplankton in Shatt Al-Arab River
		30.1 Introduction
			30.1.1 Shatt Al-Arab River
		30.2 Community Structure of Icthyoplankton in Shatt Al-Arab River
		30.3 Specific Composition of Fish Larvae in Shatt Al-Arab River
		30.4 Feeding Habits and Strategy of Fish Larvae
		30.5 Fish Eggs in Shatt Al-Arab River
			30.5.1 Fish Egg Distribution
		30.6 Discussion
		References
	Chapter 31: Rotifer Diversity in Iranian Waters: A Review
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Geography, Climate and Hydrology of Iranian Plateau
		31.3 A Biodiversity Hotspot
		31.4 Rotifer Survey in Iran
		31.5 Notes on Iranian and Regional Rotifer Diversity
		References
	Chapter 32: Biodiversity of the Freshwater Amphipods in Iran
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 The Iranian Plateau and the Tigris-Euphrates Basin
		32.3 The Amphipod Fauna
		32.4 Amphipod Biogeography in Iran
		32.5 Conclusions and Future Research Priorities
		References
	Chapter 33: The Freshwater Molluscs of the Mesopotamian Plain
		33.1 Introduction
		33.2 Distribution and Species Richness of Molluscs of Mesopotamia
		33.3 Diversity of Gastropoda
		33.4 Diversity of Bivalvia
		33.5 Major Threats to Molluscan Fauna
		References
	Chapter 34: Freshwater Annelida of Iraq
		34.1 Class Polychaetes
		34.2 Class Clitellates
			34.2.1 Subclass Hirudinea (Leeches)
			34.2.2 Subclass Oligochaetes
		34.3 Sampling Techniques of Aquatic Oligochaete
		34.4 Preservation and Mounting
		34.5 Identification Criteria
		34.6 The Setae or Chaetae
		34.7 Family Naididae
			34.7.1 Subfamily Naidinae
			34.7.2 Subfamily Tubificinae
		References
	Chapter 35: A Critical Checklist of the Inland Fishes Native to the Euphrates and Tigris Drainages
		35.1 Introduction
		35.2 Coverage
		35.3 Check List
		35.4 Discussion
			35.4.1 Marine and Euryhyaline Fishes in the Shatt Al-Arab
		References
	Chapter 36: Fish Fauna of Shatt al-Arab River, Basrah, Iraq: A More than Quarter a Century of Changes
		36.1 Introduction
		36.2 Fish Species Nomenclature Changes
		36.3 Introductions and Range Extensions
		36.4 Decadal Analysis of the Fish Fauna of Shatt al-Arab River
		References
	Chapter 37: The Common Carp, Cyprinus carpio: Effect on the Environment and the Indigenous Fish Species in Iraq
		37.1 Introduction
		37.2 The Effects of the Common Carp on the Environmental Factors in the Aquatic Ecosystem
		37.3 The Effects of the Common Carp on the Invertebrate Communities in the Aquatic Ecosystem
		37.4 The Effects of the Common Carp on the Native Fish Species in the Aquatic Ecosystem
		37.5 The Status of the Common Carp in the Freshwater System in Iraq
			37.5.1 Common Carp Composition and Distribution in the Inland Waters of Iraq
			37.5.2 Lakes
				37.5.2.1 Al-Rathwania Lake
					Habbaniyah Lake
					Tharthar Lake
					Razzazah Lake
					Hamrin Dam Lake
					Dukan Dam Lake
				37.5.2.2 Euphrates River
					Middle Region
					Southern Region
				37.5.2.3 Tigris River
				37.5.2.4 Shatt al-Arab River
				37.5.2.5 The Marshes
				37.5.2.6 Shatt al-Basrah Canal
			37.5.3 Reproduction
			37.5.4 Condition Factor
			37.5.5 General Conclusion
		37.6 Recommendation for Common Carp Management
		References
	Chapter 38: The Good and the Bad in Releasing the Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella in the Freshwater System: Recommendations...
		38.1 Introduction
		38.2 General Information about the Grass Carp
			38.2.1 Identification and Short Description
			38.2.2 Distribution
			38.2.3 Biology of the Grass Carp
				38.2.3.1 Age and Growth
			38.2.4 Tolerances
				38.2.4.1 Reproductive Biology
				38.2.4.2 Food and Feeding Habit
		38.3 The Possibility of Using Grass Carp in Controlling Aquatic Vegetation
		38.4 Stocking of Grass Carp for Controlling Aquatic Vegetation
		38.5 Changes in Aquatic Plant Pattern and Plankton Composition
		38.6 Changes in Water Quality and Benthos
		38.7 The Effects of Grass Carp on the Environment and Biota of the Freshwater Systems
			38.7.1 Effects on the Sediment Chemistry
			38.7.2 Effects on Phytoplankton
			38.7.3 Effects on Zooplankton
			38.7.4 Effects on Zoobenthos
			38.7.5 Effects on Fish Communities
			38.7.6 Effects on Amphibian and Water Bird Communities
			38.7.7 Effects on Aquatic Macrophyte Community
			38.7.8 Effects on Eutrophication and Water Quality
		38.8 Position of the Grass Carp in the Iraqi Inland Waters
			38.8.1 Recommendations for Management of Stocking and Release of Grass Carp
		References
	Chapter 39: The Avifauna of Tigris and Euphrates River Basin
		39.1 Introduction
		39.2 The Geographical Landscape of Iraq
		39.3 Important Bird Areas in Iraq
		39.4 Birds of the Upper Tigris and Euphrates Basin
		39.5 The Avifauna of Central Iraq
		39.6 Mesopotamian Marshes, an Important Site for Breeding and Migrant Birds
		39.7 Birds of the Coastal Habitats at the Head of the Arabian Gulf
		39.8 Major Threats on the Avifauna of Iraq
		References
	Chapter 40: The Feasible Approaches to Assist Migratory Birds Visiting the Southern Reaches of Mesopotamia
		40.1 Introduction
		40.2 Protection of the Migratory Birds
		40.3 Why Iraq should Care About Migratory Birds Assess them While They are on Transient Visa in its Land
			40.3.1 Recent Iraq Initiatives Toward Bird´s Conservation
		40.4 Recent Bird´s Observation in Iraq
		40.5 Possible Approaches to Assist Migratory Birds in the Southern Part of Iraq
			40.5.1 Artificial Nests
				40.5.1.1 Highlights of the Results of Using Artificial Nests
			40.5.2 Light to Assess Nocturnally Migrating Birds
				40.5.2.1 Highlights of the Results on Assessing Nocturnal Migratory Birds
		References
	Chapter 41: A Proposal for Establishing Bird Observatory Centre in the South of Iraq
		41.1 Introduction
		41.2 How Avian Data that Will Be Available at the Observatory Centre Be Useful?
		41.3 General Rules and Policies of the Observatory
			41.3.1 Migration Monitoring Programme
			41.3.2 Migration Monitoring Field Operations
				41.3.2.1 Overview of the Migration Monitoring Protocol
				41.3.2.2 Daily Banding Routine
				41.3.2.3 Bird Catching Effort
				41.3.2.4 Daily Census
		Reference
	Chapter 42: The Potential Role of Waterbirds as a Vector in Dispersing Invertebrates and Plants in the South of Iraq
		42.1 Introduction
		42.2 Steps in Dispersal of Plants and Invertebrates by Waterbirds
		42.3 External Transport: Can Propagules Adhere to Waterbirds?
		42.4 The Long-Distance Dispersal of Invertebrates
		42.5 Waterbirds Versus the Invasive Species
			42.5.1 Methods of Disperse Alien Species by Waterbirds
				42.5.1.1 Emigration
				42.5.1.2 Movement and Transport
				42.5.1.3 Immigration
		42.6 The Negative Issues in the Dispersal of Plants and Invertebrates by Waterbirds
		42.7 Future Studies and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 43: The Wild Mammals of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Basin
		43.1 Introduction
		43.2 Wild Mammals of Iraq, Taxonomic Revisions, Distribution, and Conservation Status
		43.3 The Wild Mammals of the Lower Tigris and Euphrates Basin (Mesopotamian Marshes)
		43.4 Threats on Wild Mammals of Iraq
		References
	Chapter 44: The Amphibians and Reptiles of Euphrates and Tigris Basin
		44.1 Introduction
		44.2 A Short History of Herpetology and Herpetological Publications in Mesopotamia
		44.3 Mesopotamian Biogeography Relative to Reptiles and Amphibians Distribution
		44.4 Amphibians and Reptiles of Euphrates and Tigris River Basin
		44.5 Checklist of Amphibians in Mesopotamia
		44.6 Checklist of Reptilians in Mesopotamia
		44.7 Freshwater Amphibians and Reptiles in the Euphrates and Tigris River Drainages
		44.8 Threats to Freshwater Herpetofauna in the Euphrates and Tigris River Basin
		44.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 45: A Preliminary Pictorial Guide to the Herpetofauna of Tigris and Euphrates River Basin
		45.1 Introduction
		45.2 Annotated Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Tigris and Euphrates River Basin
		References
	Chapter 46: Policy Guidance for Sustainable Aquaculture in the Inland Waters of Iraq
		46.1 Introduction
		46.2 Sustainable Aquaculture
		46.3 Benefits of Aquaculture
		46.4 Risks of Aquaculture
		46.5 Codes of Conduct
		46.6 Best Management Practices
		46.7 Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 47: How Possible to Use the Desert Area in Iraq for Aquaculture Industry: Basic Facts and Recommondations
		47.1 Introduction
		47.2 Appropriate Species for Desert Aquaculture
		47.3 Benefits and the Drawbacks of Desert Aquaculture
			47.3.1 Strategies Supporting the Desert Aquaculture
		47.4 Types of Farming Systems
		47.5 Recommondations
		References
	Chapter 48: Aquaculture Industry in Iraq: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives
		48.1 Introduction
		48.2 Water Resources for Aquaculture
		48.3 Cultivated Species
		48.4 Aquaculture Systems and Production
			48.4.1 Earthen Pond System
				48.4.1.1 Pond Specifications
				48.4.1.2 Multi-Size Polyculture Technique
				48.4.1.3 Economic Feasibility
			48.4.2 Closed Systems
			48.4.3 Floating Cages
			48.4.4 Fish Farming in the Marshes
		48.5 Fish Feeding and Feed Plants
		48.6 Hatcheries and Fish Seeds Production
			48.6.1 Hatchery Specifications
			48.6.2 The Brooder Stock
			48.6.3 Induced Spawning Procedure
			48.6.4 Larviculture
		48.7 Fish Marketing
			48.7.1 Economical Aspects
		48.8 Future Steps
		References
	Chapter 49: Towards an Improved Tilapia Farming in Iraq: Recommendations for Future Application
		49.1 Introduction
		49.2 Synopsis of the Aquaculture Activities in South of Iraq
			49.2.1 Some Factors Shown to Hinder the Aquaculture Industry in Iraq
				49.2.1.1 Environmental Factors
				49.2.1.2 Availability of Fish Fingerlings and Fish Food
			49.2.2 Fish Farms in Iraq
		49.3 Tilapia as a Global Important Food Fish
			49.3.1 Genetics
			49.3.2 Nutrition
			49.3.3 BioFlocs
			49.3.4 Agricultural Plant Wastes
			49.3.5 Production Systems and Locations
				49.3.5.1 Diversity of Production Modes
				49.3.5.2 Geographic Distribution
				49.3.5.3 Low Cost Production Costs
			49.3.6 Polyculture
		49.4 General Problems and Solutions in Tilapia Culture: Problems and Solutions
		49.5 Extensive Culture
			49.5.1 Pond Culture
			49.5.2 Semi-Intensive Culture (Ponds)
			49.5.3 Intensive Culture
				49.5.3.1 Cages
				49.5.3.2 Integrated Tilapia and Shrimp Production
		49.6 Development of Technologies and Tilapia Farming
		49.7 Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 50: Information and Recommendations of Aquaculture Stress and its Source in Hatcheries: The Iraqi Aquaculture Industry...
		50.1 Introduction
		50.2 Causes of Stress in Hatchery
			50.2.1 Water Temperature
			50.2.2 pH of Water
			50.2.3 Photoperiod
			50.2.4 Mechanical Stress
		50.3 Consequences of Stress
			50.3.1 Stress and Immune System
			50.3.2 Stress and Diseases
			50.3.3 Stress and Reproductive Inhibition
			50.3.4 Stress and Reduced Feeding Behavior and Growth
			50.3.5 Stress and Behavioral Response
		50.4 Signs of Stress in Fish
			50.4.1 Cellular and Molecular Indicators
			50.4.2 Primary and Secondary Physiological Indicators
			50.4.3 Whole-Organism Indicators
		50.5 Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 51: Exotic and Invasive Freshwater Fishes in the Tigris-Euphrates River System
		51.1 Introduction
		51.2 The Tigris-Euphrates Basin
		51.3 The Tigris River
		51.4 The Euphrates River
		51.5 Materials and Methods
		51.6 Results
		51.7 Discussion
		References
Part IV: Water Resources
Chapter 52: The Ecology and Modelling of the Freshwater Ecosystems in Iran
	52.1 Introduction
	52.2 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals
	52.3 Freshwaters of Iran
	52.4 Usual Habitats
		52.4.1 Freshwater Spring-Stream Systems
	52.5 Fish Diversity of Iran
	52.6 Environmental Concerns of Iranian Freshwater
		52.6.1 Human Pressures
			52.6.1.1 Land-Use Pressures
				Deforestation
				Overgrazing
				Agricultural Land Use (Fig. 52.11)
				Urban Land Use (Fig. 52.12)
			52.6.1.2 Hydrological Pressures
			52.6.1.3 Connectivity Pressures
			52.6.1.4 Water Quality Pressures
			52.6.1.5 Morphological Pressures
			52.6.1.6 Biological Pressures
			52.6.1.7 Global Climate Change
	52.7 Case Study 1
		52.7.1 Study Area and Site Selection
		52.7.2 Fish Sampling As Well as Environmental and Human Pressures Data Measurements
		52.7.3 Regional Pressure Index (RPI) Calculation
		52.7.4 Fish Metrics Description
		52.7.5 Determination and Assessment of Predictor Variables
		52.7.6 Fish Metrics Prediction
		52.7.7 Testing Sensitivity of Fish Metrics to Human Pressures
		52.7.8 Index Calculation, Scoring, and Validation
		52.7.9 Results for Salmonid Zone
		52.7.10 Results for Cyprinid Zone
		52.7.11 Conclusion
	52.8 Case Study 2
		52.8.1 Study Area and Fish Data
		52.8.2 Environmental Predictor Variables
		52.8.3 Modelling by SDM Tool
		52.8.4 Results of Modelling
	52.9 General Conclusion
	References
Chapter 53: Enhancing Rural Women´s Participation in Fisheries in Iraq
	53.1 Introduction
	53.2 How to Achieve the Goal
	53.3 Women and Technology
	53.4 Inferences for Women
	53.5 Areas of Women´s Participation
	53.6 Women in Fisheries in Asia as an Example
	53.7 Recommendations
	References
Chapter 54: The Impact of Destructive Fishing Gear on the Fish Biodiversity in the Inland Waters of Iraq
	54.1 Introduction
	54.2 Poverty and the Use of Destructive Fishing Gear
	54.3 Review of the Destructive Fishing Methods
		54.3.1 Electrofishing
			54.3.1.1 Harmful Effects of Electrofishing on Fishes
				Types of Injuries Caused by Electric Shock
					Injuries Additional to the Spinal-Associated Injuries
				Spinal Related Injuries
			54.3.1.2 Effects of Electrofishing on Invertebrate Fauna
			54.3.1.3 Use of Electrofishing in Iraq
			54.3.1.4 Recommendations
		54.3.2 Poison Fishing
			54.3.2.1 Poison Fishing with Chemicals
				Poison Fishing with Cyanide
				Effects of Insecticides on the Aquatic Life
			54.3.2.2 Insecticides Fishing in Iraq
			54.3.2.3 Plant Poison Fishing
				Plant Species Used in Poison Fishing
				The Structure and the Mechanism of the Plant Poison Used for Fishing Purposes
				Plant Poison Fishing in Iraq
			54.3.2.4 Blast or Bomb Fishing
				Blast or Bomb Fishing in Iraq
				Recommendations
	References
Chapter 55: Evaluating Variations in Fisheries by Means of Fishers´ Information: Suggested Methodology to Improve Small-Scale ...
	55.1 Introduction
	55.2 The General Plan of the Methodology
	55.3 How Useful the Fishers Knowledge about the Small-Scale Fisheries
	55.4 Characteristics of the Methodology
	55.5 Example on the Expected Results of Fishers´ Interview
	55.6 Use of Fishers´ Knowledge in Predicting Climate Changes
	References
Chapter 56: A Possibility to Apply a Traditional Fisheries Enforcement Programme in the Inland Waters of Iraq
	56.1 Introduction
	56.2 Historical Background
	56.3 The Traditional Fisheries Sector in Iraq
	56.4 Suggestions for the Iraqi Government to Introduce Fisheries Lawmaking and Implementation Actions
	56.5 Key Points of the Enforcement Programme
	References
Chapter 57: Market-Resource Relations and Fish Seller Livelihood as Seen in Inland Waters of Iraq
	57.1 Introduction
	57.2 Small-Scale Retailing and Artisanal Fishing
	57.3 Commodity Chains
	57.4 Types of Fish Markets in Iraq
	57.5 Important Questions Need to be Asked in Relation to the Market and the Riverine Livelihoods in Southern Iraq
	57.6 Livelihoods Perspectives and Small-Scale Fisheries Management and Development
	References
Chapter 58: The Potential Impact of Deformities in Fishes upon Aquatic Production: Case of Iraq
	58.1 Introduction
	58.2 Review of the Fish Deformities so Far Reported from Freshwater and Marine Fish Species of Iraq
	58.3 Selected Major Incidences of Injuries and Deformities in Fishes in General
	58.4 Conclusions and Suggestions
	References
Chapter 59: The Impact of some Social Taboos on Fisheries in Iraq
	59.1 Introduction
	59.2 Species-Specific Taboos
	59.3 The Historical and Religious Aspects of Fish Taboos
	59.4 Fish Taboos in Iraq
	59.5 Aquatic Organism Included in the Food Taboos Practised in Iraq
		59.5.1 Species of Scaleless Fish
			59.5.1.1 Catfish Species
			59.5.1.2 Species Account of the Catfishes
		59.5.2 Species of eel Group
			59.5.2.1 Freshwater eel Species
			59.5.2.2 Marine eel Species
		59.5.3 Cartilaginous Fishes
			59.5.3.1 Sharks and Rays Species Content of Iraq
	59.6 The Effects of Fish Taboos on the Socio-Economic of the Fishers and the Iraq
	References
Chapter 60: Inland Water Fishes and Fisheries in Iran
	60.1 Inland Fishing and Fisheries in Iran
	References
Chapter 61: The Possibility of Introducing an Inland Fisheries Education in Iraq
	61.1 Introduction
	61.2 Summary of the History of the Higher Education in Iraq
	61.3 Fisheries Education in Iraq
		61.3.1 Undergraduate Education
		61.3.2 Postgraduate Education
	61.4 Dissemination of the Knowledge
		61.4.1 Scientific Journals
		61.4.2 Other Publications by Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (MHESR) in Iraq
	61.5 Fisheries Education Needs
	61.6 Recommendations to Set and Improve Fisheries Education in Iraq
	References
Chapter 62: The Marine and Diadromous Fisheries of Iraq
	62.1 The Large-Scale Marine Fisheries of Iraq
	62.2 The Small-Scale Marine Fisheries of Iraq
	62.3 Discarded Catch
	62.4 Discussion
	References
Part V: Stress of the Environment of the Two Rivers
Chapter 63: Fish Deformities in the Freshwater Fishes of Iraq: A Short Review and a Study Case on the Indian Catfish Heteropne...
	63.1 Introduction
	63.2 Fish Abnormality Studies in Iraq.
	63.3 Effect of Heavy Metals on Fish
	63.4 Loss of Pelvic Fins in the Indian Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis Collected from Al-Hammar Marsh, Basrah, Iraq-a Study C...
	63.5 Future Research
	References
Chapter 64: The Phenomenon of Fluctuating Asymmetry: As Fish Welfare Indicator Represented by Case Study from the Freshwater F...
	64.1 Introduction
	64.2 Fish Fluctuating Asymmetry Studies
	64.3 Fluctuating Asymmetry Studies in Iraq
	64.4 Asymmetry Measurement
	64.5 Bilateral Asymmetry in the Indian Catfish Collected from Several Localities in Iraq: A Case Study
		64.5.1 Overview
		64.5.2 Methodology
			64.5.2.1 Study Area
			64.5.2.2 Chemical Analyses of Organochlorine Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Surficial Sediments
		64.5.3 Data analysis
			64.5.3.1 Probability of Toxicity
			64.5.3.2 Fluctuating Asymmetry
			64.5.3.3 Heavy Metals Data Analysis
		64.5.4 Fish Samples
	64.6 Results and Discussion
	64.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
Chapter 65: The Studies on Sediments Pollution by Different Types of Metals in Turkey
	65.1 The Previous Studies on Sediments Pollution of Euphrates-Tigris Rivers, Turkey with Metals
		65.1.1 The Euphrates River Sediments
		65.1.2 The Tigris River Sediments
		65.1.3 Investigation on the Other Surface Waters and Sediments in Turkey
	65.2 Material and Methods Used in the Pollution of Sediments of Euphrates-Tigris Rivers, with Metals in Turkey
	65.3 Review of the Euphrates-Tigris River Sediment´s Pollution by Metals in Turkey
	References
Chapter 66: Macroplastic and Microplastic in the Freshwater Environment of Southern Iraq: Evidences Obtained from Freshwater F...
	66.1 Introduction
	66.2 Features of the Microplastics
		66.2.1 Shape
		66.2.2 Particle Size
		66.2.3 Color
		66.2.4 Surface Texture
	66.3 Freshwater Fish Species as an Evidence for Plastic Contamination in Iraq
	66.4 The Evidence of the Presence Macro- and Microplastic in the Stomach of Iraqi Fish Species
	66.5 The Future Next Steps and Opportunities
	References
Chapter 67: Heavy Metals in Freshwater Invertebrates of Iran: A Review on the Bioaccumulation and Effects
	67.1 Introduction
	67.2 Brief Review of the Relevant Studies
	67.3 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 68: Fish Parasites of Tigris and Euphrates River Systems
	68.1 The Impact of Parasites on the Host
	68.2 Recorded Parasites from Tigris and Euphrates River Systems
	68.3 Major Groups of Parasites Detected from Tigris and Euphrates River Systems
	68.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 69: The Parasites of Fishes of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers: Iraq and Turkey
	69.1 Introduction
	69.2 The Importance of Fish Parasites
	69.3 The Euphrates and Tigris Rivers
	69.4 Freshwater Fish Fauna of Euphrates and Tigris Rivers of Iraq and Turkey
	69.5 The Parasite Diversity of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers of Iraq and Turkey
	References
Chapter 70: Ornamental Fishes: A Looming Danger for Inland Fish Diversity of Iraq
	70.1 Introduction
	70.2 Invasive Fish Species of Iraq
		70.2.1 Food Fish Species
			70.2.1.1 Family Cyprinidae
				Carasobarbus sublimus (Coad and Najafpour, 1997)
				Gibel Carp, Carassius gibelio (Bloch 1782)
				Common Carp, Cyprinus carpio
				Hemiculter leucisculus (Basilewsky, 1855)
			70.2.1.2 Family Cichlidae
				Coptodon zillii (Gervais, 1848)
				Oreochromis aureus (Steindacher, 1864)
				The Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
			70.2.1.3 Family: Xenocyrididae
				Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844)
				Silver Carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
				Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1844)
		70.2.2 Medical Purposes Fish Species
			70.2.2.1 Family: Poeciliidae
				Mosquito Fish, Gambusia holbrooki Girard, 1859
				The Indian Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch, 1794)
		70.2.3 Ornamental Fish Species
			70.2.3.1 Family: Poeciliidae
				Sailfin Mollie, Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur, 1821)
			70.2.3.2 Family: Pangassidae
				The Striped Catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878)
			70.2.3.3 Family: Lepisosteidae
				The Alligator Gar, Atractosteus spatula (Lacepède, 1803)
			70.2.3.4 Family: Serrasalmidae
				The Speckled Piranha, Serrasalmus maculatus Kner, 1858
	70.3 Negative Side of the Aquarium Trade
		70.3.1 The Disease Risks
		70.3.2 Ecological Impact
		70.3.3 Economic Impacts
	70.4 Recommendations
	References
Part VI: The Health of the Human Community Inhabiting Freshwater Zones
Chapter 71: Aquatic Snails as a Vector of Diseases to the Human in Iran
	71.1 Introduction
	71.2 Human Fascioliasis
	71.3 Human Schistosomiasis
	71.4 Human Cercarial Dermatitis
	71.5 Human Dicrocoeliasis
	References
Chapter 72: Death by Drowning in Rivers in Iraq
	72.1 Introduction
	72.2 The Risk of the Rivers
	72.3 Factors Affecting and Assisting in Drowning
		72.3.1 Geography and Shape of Aquatic Environments
		72.3.2 Additional Environmental Factors
		72.3.3 Open-Air Aquatic Environmental Factors
	72.4 Future Method to Investigate Drowning-Related Deaths in Iraq
		72.4.1 The Protocol
		72.4.2 The Expected Results of the Survey
		72.4.3 The Outcome of the Survey Analysis
	72.5 The Impact of Lack of Legislation Governing Water Safety and Drowning Prevention
	72.6 Solicitation to Prevention
	References
Chapter 73: The Dangerous Catfish Species in the Freshwater System of Iraq: First Time Reports on Cases of Envenomation
	73.1 Introduction
	73.2 Case Reports
		73.2.1 Family Bagridae
			73.2.1.1 Mystus pelusius
			73.2.1.2 Conclusion
		73.2.2 Family Siluridae
			73.2.2.1 Parasilurus triostegus
			73.2.2.2 Conclusion
		73.2.3 Family Heteropneustidae
			73.2.3.1 Heteropneustes fossilis
			73.2.3.2 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 74: Fish Species of the Order Cypriniformes as a Source of Ichthyootoxin and Ichthyogallotoxin in Iraq: Cases Reports
	74.1 Introduction
	74.2 Cases Reports
		74.2.1 Ichthyootoxication
		74.2.2 Ichthyogallotoxication
	74.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 75: First Reports on Cases of Hallucinatory Fish Poisoning (Ichthyoallyeinotoxism) and Scombrotoxic Fish Poisoning in ...
	75.1 Introduction
	75.2 Hallucinatory Fish Poisoning (Ichthyoallyeinotoxism)
		75.2.1 Case Report No. 1
		75.2.2 Case Report No. 2
		75.2.3 Remarks
	75.3 Scombrotoxic Fish Poisoning
		75.3.1 Case Report No. 1
		75.3.2 Remarks
	References
Part VII: Conservation
Chapter 76: Freshwater Management and Conservation in Iran: Past, Present, and Future
	76.1 Introduction
	76.2 Freshwater Management and Conservation in the Past: Traditional Water Management System
		76.2.1 Before Modernization
		76.2.2 After Modernization
	76.3 Present Situation of Iran Water Management System: Crisis Period
	76.4 Future of the Water Management in Iran
	76.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 77: The Need of Biodiversity Conservation Strategies in Iraq: The State of Protected Areas
	77.1 Introduction
	77.2 Creating Protected Areas in Iraq
	77.3 Threats to Protected Areas of Iraq
	77.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
Chapter 78: Benthic Macroinvertebrates of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Turkey
	78.1 Introduction
	78.2 Streams and Dam Lakes of the Two Rivers
		78.2.1 Tigris (Dicle) River
		78.2.2 Euphrates (Frat) River
	78.3 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities in the Two Rivers of Turkey
		78.3.1 Group Mollusca
		78.3.2 Group Oligochaeta
		78.3.3 Group Ostracoda
		78.3.4 Group Hydrachnidia
		78.3.5 Group Malacostraca
		78.3.6 Group Aquatic Insecta
	78.4 The Roles of Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Environmental Effects on Their Distribution in the Basin
	References
Chapter 79: Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation in Iraq: Recommendations for Management
	79.1 Introduction
	79.2 General Overview of the Conservation Plan
	79.3 Recommendations
	Reference
Chapter 80: Utilising Phenotypic Difference to Regulate Protection Value: A Scheme for Application of a Novel Approach to the ...
	80.1 Introduction
	80.2 Methodology
	80.3 Expected Results
	80.4 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 81: Hatchery-Reared Fish Stocks Released into the Wild: A Conservation Problem as Seen in a Case Study from Iraq
	81.1 Introduction
	81.2 The Reasons why Do Hatchery and Wild Fish Differ
	81.3 Study Case from the Freshwaters System of Iraq
		81.3.1 Data, Sampling, and Statistical Analysis
	81.4 Results
	81.5 Conclusions
	References
Part VIII: Social Perspectives
Chapter 82: Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full? An Appraisal of the Four Decades of Turkey´s Southeastern Anatolia Project (...
	82.1 Introduction
	82.2 GAP
	82.3 Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full?
		82.3.1 Infrastructural and Economic Dimension
		82.3.2 Sociocultural Dimension
	82.4 Discussion
	82.5 Conclusion
	References
Part IX: Food Security
Chapter 83: How Possible to Build Rice-Fish Farming in Iraq in order to Support Food Security Plan: Positive and the Negative ...
	83.1 Introduction
	83.2 Rice Agriculture in Iraq
	83.3 Aquaculture in Iraq
	83.4 Socioeconomic Benefits of the Rice-Fish Farming within the Food Security Process
	83.5 The Negative Side of the Rice-Fish Farming within the Food Security Process
		83.5.1 Economic Problems in Rice-Fish Farming
			83.5.1.1 Initial Financial Problems
			83.5.1.2 Diet Difficulties in Combined Rice and Fish Culturing Fields
			83.5.1.3 Loss of Fish in Combined Rice and Fish Culturing Fields
			83.5.1.4 Difficulties of Fish Seed in Rice-Fish Culturing
			83.5.1.5 Aquatic Difficulties in Rice-Fish Culturing
			83.5.1.6 Biota in Rice-Fish Culturing
			83.5.1.7 Deficiency of Information and Skill in Rice-Fish Culturing
			83.5.1.8 Deficiency of Oxygen in Combined Rice and Fish Culturing Scheme
	83.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 84: The Importance of Non-commercial and Small-Sized Fish Species: A Proposal for an Additional Revenue to Iraq
	84.1 Introduction
	84.2 The General Benefit of the Non-commercial Fish
	84.3 The Benefit of Non-commercial Fish for Humans
	84.4 The Negligence of the Non-commercial Fish by Human
	84.5 Non-commercial Species Utilization
		84.5.1 The Effects of the Social System on the Utilization of Non-commercial Species
		84.5.2 Processing the Non-commercial Species for the Local and Export Purposes
		84.5.3 Production of Fish Protein Concentrates
			84.5.3.1 Fishmeal and Fish Protein Concentrate
			84.5.3.2 Utilization of Fish Products
		84.5.4 Food Hydrocolloids as Additives
			84.5.4.1 Surimi
		84.5.5 Low-Salt Restructured Products
		84.5.6 Non-commercial Small Fish as a Source of Micronutrients
	84.6 What Fish Species in Iraq Is a Small-Sized Fish Species and Non-commercial?
	84.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 85: Sociocultural Aspects Influence Food Consumption Habits in Iraq: Management of Food Security
	85.1 Introduction
	85.2 Factors Affecting Food Consumption
		85.2.1 Income
		85.2.2 Food Price
		85.2.3 Local Differences
		85.2.4 Geographical Differences
		85.2.5 Influence of Religious
		85.2.6 Food Distribution within the Family
		85.2.7 Education
	85.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 86: A Preliminary Investigation of Determinants of Food Security in Rural Areas of Basrah Province, Iraq
	86.1 Introduction
	86.2 The Method of Obtaining Data
	86.3 Analysis of the Data Collected
	86.4 Conclusion
	References