Think critically

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1 The Power of Critical Thinking
	Risk and Uncertainty Abound
		Critical Thinking and a Free Society
		The One and the Many
	What Do We Mean by “Critical Thinking”?
		Expert Consensus Conceptualization
		“Critical Thinking” Does Not Mean “Negative Thinking”
		Improvement Takes Practice
	Evaluating Critical Thinking
		The Students’ Assignment—Kennedy Act
		The Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric
			The Students’ Assignment—Haiti
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concept
		Applications
Chapter 2 Critical Thinking Mindset and Skills
	Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind
		The Spirit of a Strong Critical Thinker
		Positive vs. Negative Habits of Mind
		Preliminary Self-Assessment
		Research on the Positive Critical Thinking Mindset
			Seven Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind
			Negative Habits of Mind
		Is a Good Critical Thinker Automatically a Good Person?
		Cultivate a Positive Critical Thinking Mindset
	Core Critical Thinking Skills
		Interpreting and Analyzing the Consensus Statement
		The Jury Is Deliberating
		Critical Thinking Skills Fire in Many Combinations
		Strengthening Our Core Critical Thinking Skills
		The Art of the Good Question
		Skills and Subskills Defined
	Looking Ahead
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 3 Solve Problems and Succeedin College
	Differences and Similarities
	IDEAS: A 5-Step Critical Thinking General Problem-Solving Process
	Educating the Whole Person
		Social Relationships
			STEP 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities
		Vocation
			STEP 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities
			STEP 2: DETERMINE relevant Information and Deepen Understanding
		Academics
			The First Two IDEAS Steps in Maria’s Case
		Health and Physical Well-being
			The First Three Steps in Leah’s Case
	Problems in College and Beyond
		Emotional Well-Being
		Spiritual Development
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concept
		Applications
Chapter 4 Clarify Ideas and Concepts
	Interpretation, Context, and Purpose
		Meaning Matters
		But, Clear Enough for What?
		Worth 1000 Words
		Communication, Language, and Thought
	When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings
		Vagueness: “Does the Meaning Include This Case or Not?”
		Problematic Vagueness
		Ambiguity: “Which Meaning Are We Using?”
		Problematic Ambiguity
	Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity
		Contextualizing
		Clarifying Original Intent
		Negotiating the Meaning
		Using Qualifications, Exceptions, or Exclusions
		Stipulating the Meaning
		Donkey Cart Words Signal Twisted Meanings
	Language Communities
		National and Global Language Communities
		Language Communities Formed of People with Like Interests
		Academic Disciplines as Language Communities
		Critical Thinking and College Introductory Courses
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 5 Analyze Argumentsand Diagram Decisions
	Analyzing Reasons and Claims
		Accuracy Depends on Context and Purpose
		Over-Simplification Masks Reality
		“Reason” and “Premise”
	Mapping Claims and the Reasons for Them
		Interpreting Unspoken Reasons and Claims in Context
		Interpreting the Use of Irony, Humor, Sarcasm, and More
	Analyzing Arguments in Context
		The El Train Argument
		The “Guns for Kids” Conversation
	Analyzing and Mapping Decisions
		“We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #1
		“We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #2
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 6 Evaluate the Credibilityof Claims and Sources
	Assessing the Source: Whom Should I Trust?
		Claims without Reasons
		Cognitive Development and Healthy Skepticism
		Authority and Expertise
			Learned and Experienced
			On-Topic, Up-To-Date,and Capable of Explaining
			Unbiased and Truthful
			Free of Conflicts of Interest, and Acting in theClient’s Interest
			Unconstrained, Informed about the Caseat Hand, and Mentally Stable
			Twelve Characteristics of a Trustworthy Source
	Assessing the Substance—What Should I Believe?
		Personal Muck and Gunk Monitor
		Self-Contradictions and Tautologies
		Marketing, Spin, Disinformation, and Propaganda
		Slanted Language and Loaded Expressions
	Independent Verification
		Can the Claim Be Confirmed?
		Can the Claim Be Disconfirmed?
		More than a Healthy Sense of Skepticism Only
		Independent Investigation and the Q-Ray Bracelet Case
		Suspending Judgment
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 7 Evaluate Arguments: Four Basic Tests
	Giving Reasons and Making Arguments
		Truthfulness
		Logical Strength
		Relevance
		Non-Circularity
	The Four Tests for Evaluating Arguments
		Test #1: Truthfulness of the Premises
		Test #2: Logical Strength
		Test #3: Relevance
		Test #4: Non-Circularity
		Argument Making Contexts
	Common Reasoning Errors
		Fallacies of Relevance
			Appeals to Ignorance
			Appeals to the Mob
			Appeals to Emotion
			Ad HominemAttacks
			Straw Man Fallacy
			Playing withWords Fallacy
			Misuse of Authority Fallacy
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 8 Valid Inferences
	The Structure of the Reasoning
		Inferences Offered as Certain
		Reasoning with Declarative Statements
			Denying the Consequent
			Affirming theAntecedent
			Disjunctive Syllogism
		Reasoning about Classes of Objects
			Applying a Generalization
			Applying an Exception
			The Power of Only
		Reasoning about Relationships
			Transitivity, reflexivity, and Identity
	Fallacies Masquerading as Valid Arguments
	Fallacies When Reasoning with Declarative Statements
		Affirming the Consequent
		Denying the Antecedent
		Fallacies When Reasoning about Classes of Objects
			False Classification
			Fallacies of Compositionand Division
		Fallacies of False Reference
		Personal Infallibility? We Don’t Think So
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concept
		Applications
Chapter 9 Warranted Inferences
	The Evidence Currently at Hand
		The “Weight of Evidence”
		Evaluating Generalizations
			Was the Correct Group Sampled?
			Were the Data Obtained in an Effective Way?
			Were Enough Cases Considered?
			Was the Sample representatively Structured?
		Coincidences, Patterns, Correlations, and Causes
			Coincidences
			Patterns
			Correlations
			Causes
	Fallacies Masquerading as Warranted Arguments
		Erroneous Generalization
		Playing withNumbers
		False Dilemma
		The Gambler’sFallacy
		False Cause
		Slippery Slope
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concept
		Applications
Chapter 10 Snap Judgments: Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking
	Our Two Human Decision-Making Systems
		The “Two-Systems” Approach to Human Decision Making
			Reactive (System-1) Thinking
			Reflective (System-2)Thinking
		The Value of Each System
	Heuristics: Their Benefits and Risks
		Individual Cognitive Heuristics
			1. Satisficing and 2. Temporizing
			3. Affect: “Go withYour Gut”
			4. Simulation
			5. Availability
			6. Representation
			7. Association
			8. Stereotyping
			9. “Us vs.Them”
			10. Power Differential
			11. Anchoring withAdjustment
			12. Illusion of Control
			13. OptimisticBias and 14. Hindsight Bias
			15. Elimination by Aspect:“One Strike and You’re Out”
			16. Loss and RiskAversion
			17. “All or Nothing”
		Heuristics in Action
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 11 Reflective Decision Making
	Dominance Structuring: A Fortress of Conviction
		“I Would Definitely Go to the Doctor”
		Explaining and Defending Ourselves
			A Poorly Crafted Assignment
		Moving from Decision to Action
			Phase 1: Pre-Editing
			Phase 2: Identifying One PromisingOption
			Phase 3: Testing the Promising Option
			Phase 4: Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option
		Benefits and Risks of Dominance Structuring
	Self-Regulation Critical Thinking Skill Strategies
		Precautions When Pre-Editing
			Be Sure about “The Problem”
			Specify theDecision-Critical Attributes
			Be Clear about Whyan Option Is In or Out
		Precautions When Identifying the Promising Option
			Scrutinize Options with Disciplined Impartiality
			Listen to Both Sides First
		Precautions When Testing the Promising Option
			Use All the Essential Criteria
			Treat Equals as Equals
			Diligently Engage in Truth-Seeking and remain Impartial
		Precautions When Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option
			Be Honest with Yourself
		Critical Thinking Strategies for Better Decision Making
			Task Independent Teams with the Same Problem
			Decide When It’s Time to Decide
			Analyze Indicators and Make Midcourse Corrections
			Create a Culture of respect for Critical Thinking
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 12 Comparative Reasoning
	Recognizing Comparative Reasoning
		Our Minds Crave Patterns
		Comparative, Ideological, and Empirical Inferences
		How This Chapter Connects to Others
		Gardens of Comparatives
		Powerful Comparisons Connect Intellect and Emotion
	Evaluating Comparative Inferences
		Do the Four Tests of Acceptability Apply?
		Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
			Familiarity
			Simplicity
			Comprehensiveness
			Productivity
			Testability
	Models and Metaphors Shape Expectations
		Creative Suggestions vs. Solid Proofs
		The Center of the Universe for Two Thousand Years
		The Many Uses of Comparative Inferences
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 13 Ideological Reasoning
	Recognizing Ideological Reasoning
		Examples of Ideological Reasoning
		Three Features of Ideological Reasoning
			Ideological reasoning Is Deductive in Character
			Ideological Premises Are Axiomatic
			The Argument Maker Takes the Ideological Absolutes on Faith
	Evaluating Ideological Reasoning
		Are the Ideological Premises True?
		Logical Strength and Ideological Belief Systems
		Relevancy, Non-Circularity, and Ideological Reasoning
	Uses, Benefits, and Risks of Ideological Reasoning
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concept
		Applications
Chapter 14 Empirical Reasoning
	Recognizing Empirical Reasoning
		Characteristics of Empirical Reasoning
			Empirical Reasoning Is Inductive
			Empirical ReasoningIs Self-Corrective
			Empirical Reasoning Is Open toIndependent Verification
		Hypotheses, Conditions, and Measurable Manifestations
	Conducting an Investigation Scientifically
		Perhaps the First Recorded Empirical Investigation
		Steps in the Process: An Extended Example
		Evaluating Empirical Reasoning
	Benefits and Risks Associated with Empirical Reasoning
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 15 Write Sound and Effective Arguments
	What Critical Thinking Questions Do Effective Writers Ask?
		The Rhetorical Situation
		Think Author
			Find Your Voice
			Think about Who You Read
		Think Audience
			What Does the Audience Care About?
			Writing for You
			Who Is Your Audience?
			Same Author and Audience, Different Purpose
		Think Purpose and Circumstances
			Think Tactics
			Clues from Contextual Cues
	Organize and Develop Your Presentation
		Reach Out and Grab Someone
		Crafting a Presentation
		Good News: Writing Is Work
			An Arguable Thesis Statement and Solid Research
			Map Out the Arguments Proand Con—Then Outline Your Case
		“BART’S Decision—Draft”
		Evaluating the Credibility of Sources
		Prewriting, Writing, and Rewriting
		Two Practical Tips
	Evaluating Effectiveness
		Features of Sound and Effective Written Argumentation
		A Tool for Evaluating Critical Thinking and Writing
		How to Apply the Rubric for Evaluating Written Argumentation
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 16 Ethical Decision Making
	Ethical Imperatives
		Think Consequences
		Think Duties
		Think Virtues
	Decision Making and Ethical Decision Making
		Reactive and Reflective Ethical Decision Making
	Thinking Through Diverging Ethical Imperatives
		Prioritize, Create, and Negotiate
			Establish Priorities
			Create Additiona Options
			Negotiate Based on Each Party’s Interests
			Personal Consistency and Respect for Others
			Apply the “Golden Rule”—Do Unto Others As YouWould Have Others Do Unto You
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Chapter 17 The Logic of Declarative Statements
	Declarative Statements
		Simple Statements
		Negations
		Statement Compounds: And, Or, If . . . Then, etc.
			Conjunctions
			Disjunctions
			Conditionals
	Translating Between Symbolic Logic and a Natural Language
		Grammatically Correct Expressions
		Translation to English
		Translating to Symbolic Logic
			Example: Translating a Telephone Tree
			What the Example Teaches about Translation
	Detecting the Logical Characteristics of Statements
		Building Truth Tables
		Tautologies, Inconsistent Statements, and Contingent Statements
	Testing for Implication and Equivalence
	Evaluating Arguments for Validity
		Testing Symbolic Arguments for Validity
		Testing Natural Language Arguments for Validity
		Summing up this chapter
		Key Concepts
		Applications
Appendix: Extend Argument-Decision Mapping Strategies
Glossary
Endnotes
Credits
Index
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