Thermal Engineering

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Author
1 Basic of Thermodynamics
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Analysis of Matter
	1.3 Continuum
	1.4 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) and Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP)
		1.4.1 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
		1.4.2 Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP)
	1.5 Thermodynamic System
	1.6 Types of Thermodynamic Systems
		1.6.1 Open System
		1.6.2 Closed System
		1.6.3 Isolated System
	1.7 Properties of System
		1.7.1 Intensive Properties
		1.7.2 Extensive Properties
	1.8 Phase
	1.9 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems
	1.10 Pure Substance
	1.11 State
	1.12 Process
	1.13 Cycle
	1.14 Equation of State
	1.15 Thermodynamics Processes
		1.15.1 Isothermal Process [T = C]
		1.15.2 Isobaric Process [ P = C]
		1.15.3 Isochoric Process (or Isometric Process) [V = C]
		1.15.4 Adiabatic Process [pvγ = C]
		1.15.5 Polytropic Process [pvn = C]
	1.16 Difference Between Adiabatic Process and Polytropic Process
	1.17 All Processes are Defined on the Basis of Polytropic Law [PVn = C] by Varying the Values of Polytropic Index n
	1.18 Avogadro’s Law
	1.19 Characteristic Equation of a Gas
	1.20 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
	1.21 Amagat’s Law of Partial Volume
	1.22 Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids
	1.23 Density
	1.24 Specific Volume
	1.25 Specific Weight
	1.26 Specific Gravity
		1.26.1 Specific Gravity for Liquids
		1.26.2 Specific Gravity for Gases
	1.27 Temperature
	1.28 Pressure
	1.29 Pressure Head
	1.30 Laws of Liquid Pressure, Hydrostatic Equation, and Its Application
	1.31 Pascal’s Law
	1.32 Atmospheric Pressure and Its Measurement
		1.32.1 Measuring Atmospheric Pressure
		1.32.2 Aneroid Barometer
	1.33 Absolute, Gauge, and Vacuum Pressure
		1.33.1 Absolute Pressure
		1.33.2 Gauge Pressure
		1.33.3 Vacuum Pressure
	1.34 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
		1.34.1 Thermal Equilibrium
		1.34.2 Mechanical Equilibrium
		1.34.3 Chemical Equilibrium
	1.35 Heat
	1.36 Work
	1.37 Point Function and Path Function
		1.37.1 Point Function
		1.37.2 Path Function
	1.38 Quasi-Static Process
	1.39 Energy and Its Types
		1.39.1 Stored Energy
		1.39.2 Transit Energy
	1.40 Ideal and Real Gases
	1.41 Law of Corresponding States
	1.42 Van Der Waals Equation of State
2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Temperature
		2.2.1 Absolute Temperature Scale
	2.3 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
	2.4 Temperature Measurement
	2.5 Liquid Thermometers
	2.6 Gas Thermometers
		2.6.1 Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
		2.6.2  Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer
	2.7 Electric Resistance Thermometer
	2.8 Thermoelectric Thermometer
3 First Law of Thermodynamics
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 First Law of Thermodynamics
	3.3 Statement of the First Law of Thermodynamics
	3.4 ∮dU = 0 for Cyclic Process
	3.5 Internal Energy—A Property of the System
	3.6 Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind—PMM I
	3.7 Enthalpy
	3.8 Internal Energy
	3.9 Specific Heat
	3.10 Heat or Thermal Capacity: C = mc
	3.11 Relations Among cp, cv, R, and γ
	3.12 For Reversible Adiabatic Process, Prove That
	3.13 Non-flow and Flow Processes
	3.14 Work Done During a Non-flow Process
	3.15 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics for Non-flow Processes (Closed System)
	3.16 Constant Volume Process (Isometric or Isochoric Process)
	3.17 Constant Pressure Process (Isobaric Process)
	3.18 Constant Temperature Process (Isothermal Process)
	3.19 Adiabatic Isentropic Process (Frictionless and Adiabatic Process)
	3.20 Polytropic Process
	3.21 Free Expansion Process
4 Application of First Law of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes Thermodynamics
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Steady and Unsteady Flow
	4.3 Compressible and Incompressible Flow
	4.4 Rate of Flow
	4.5 Continuity Equation
	4.6 Steady Flow Energy Equation [SFEE]
	4.7 Derive the Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) from First Law of Thermodynamics
	4.8 Derive Euler’s Equation and Bernoulli’s Equation from Steady Flow Energy Equation
	4.9 Flow Work: W1 - 2 = - int12 vdp
	4.10 Flow Work for Thermodynamics Processes
	4.11 Practical Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
		4.11.1 Nozzle
		4.11.2 Diffuser
		4.11.3 Turbine
		4.11.4 Compressor
		4.11.5 Boiler
		4.11.6 Heat Exchanger
		4.11.7 Condenser
		4.11.8 Evaporator
		4.11.9 Adiabatic Mixing
		4.11.10 Throttling Process/Wire Drawing Process/Isenthalpic Process
	4.12 Unsteady Flow Energy Equation (UFEE)
	Summary
5 Second Law of Thermodynamics
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Thermal Reservoir
	5.3 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
	5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics
	5.5 Perpetual-Motion Machine of the Second Kind—PMM II
	5.6 Heat Engine
	5.7 Refrigerator and Heat Pump
	5.8 Equivalence of Two Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
		5.8.1 Violation of the Kelvin-Planck Statement Leads to the Violation of the Clausius Statement
		5.8.2 Violation of the Clausius Statement Leads to the Violation of the Kelvin-Planck Statement
	5.9 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
		5.9.1 Reversible Process
		5.9.2 Irreversible Process
	5.10 Carnot Cycle and Carnot Heat Engine
	5.11 Why the Carnot Cycle is not Practically Feasible?
	5.12 Carnot Theorem and Its Corollaries
	5.13 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
6 Entropy
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Entropy
	6.3 Entropy of the Universe
	6.4 Clausius Theorem
	6.5 Clausius Inequality
	6.6 Entropy—A Property of the System
	6.7 Entropy Change of an Irreversible Process
	6.8 Increase of Entropy Principle
	6.9 Third Law of Thermodynamics
	6.10 General Equations for the Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
	6.11 Entropy Change During Various Process
	6.12 Combined Statement of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
	6.13 Entropy Change for Substance Such as Steam, Liquids, and Solids
	6.14 Isentropic Process for Liquids and Solids
7 Availability and Irreversibility (Exergy and Anergy)
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 High-Grade and Low-Grade Energies
	7.3 Available and Unavailable Energy
	7.4 Loss of Available Energy Due to Heat Transfer Through a Finite Temperature Difference
	7.5 Dead State
	7.6 Availability
	7.7 Availability of Various Systems
		7.7.1 Availability for Heat Engine Cycle
		7.7.2 Availability of a Work Reservoir
		7.7.3 Availability of Heat
	7.8 Useful Work
	7.9 Reversible Work
		7.9.1 Reversible Work in a Steady Flow Process
		7.9.2 Availability Function for a Steady Flow Process:
		7.9.3 Reversible Work in a Closed System
		7.9.4 Availability Function for a Closed System: ϕ
	7.10 Heat Transfer with Other System
	7.11 Irreversibility
	7.12 Second-Law Efficiency
	7.13 Helmholtz Function: F
	7.14 Gibbs Function: G
Appendix
Bibliography
Index