Theories of Personality

Cover
Theories of Personality
About the Authors
Contents
Preface
Part I: Introduction
	Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theory
		What Is Personality?
		What Is a Theory?
			Theory Defined
			Theory and Its Relatives
				Philosophy
				Speculation
				Hypothesis
				Taxonomy
			Why Different Theories?
			Perspectives in Theories of Personality
				Psychodynamic Theories
				Humanistic-Existential Theories
				Dispositional Theories
				Biological-Evolutionary Theories
				Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories
			Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality
			What Makes a Theory Useful?
				Generates Research
				Is Falsifiable
				Organizes Data
				Guides Action
				Is Internally Consistent
				Is Parsimonious
			Dimensions for a Conceptof Humanity
			Research in PersonalityTheory
Part II: PsychodynamicTheories
	Chapter 2: Freud: Psychoanalysis
		Overview of Psychoanalytic Theory
		Biography of Sigmund Freud
		Levels of Mental Life
			Unconscious
			Preconscious
			Conscious
		Provinces of the Mind
			The Id
			The Ego
			The Superego
		Dynamics of Personality
			Drives
				Sex
				Aggression
			Anxiety
		Defense Mechanisms
			Repression
			Reaction Formation
			Displacement
			Fixation
			Regression
			Projection
			Introjection
			Sublimation
		Stages of Development
			Infantile Period
				Oral Phase
				Anal Phase
				Phallic Phase
			Latency Period
			Genital Period
			Maturity
		Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
			Freud’s Early Therapeutic Technique
			Freud’s Later Therapeutic Technique
			Dream Analysis
			Freudian Slips
		Related Research
			Unconscious Mental Processing
			Pleasure and the Id, Inhibition and the Ego
			Repression, Inhibition, and Defense Mechanisms
			Research on Dreams
		Critique of Freud
			Did Freud Understand Women, Gender, and Sexuality?
			Was Freud a Scientist?
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 3: Adler: Individual Psychology
		Overview of Individual Psychology
		Biography of Alfred Adler
		Introduction to Adlerian Theory
		Striving for Success or Superiority
			The Final Goal
			The Striving Force as Compensation
			Striving for Personal Superiority
			Striving for Success
		Subjective Perceptions
			Fictionalism
			Physical Inferiorities
		Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality
			Organ Dialect
			Conscious and Unconscious
		Social Interest
			Origins of Social Interest
			Importance of Social Interest
		Style of Life
		Creative Power
		Abnormal Development
			General Description
			External Factors in Maladjustment
				Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies
				Pampered Style of Life
				Neglected Style of Life
			Safeguarding Tendencies
				Excuses
				Aggression
				Withdrawal
			Masculine Protest
				Origins of the Masculine Protest
				Adler, Freud, and the Masculine Protest
		Applications of Individual Psychology
			Family Constellation
			Early Recollections
			Dreams
			Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			Birth Order, Intelligence, Academic Achievement, and Personality
			Early Recollections and Career Choice
			Distinguishing Narcissism as Striving for Superiority versus Self-Esteem as Striving for Success
		Critique of Adler
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 4: Jung: Analytical Psychology
		Overview of Analytical Psychology
		Biography of Carl Jung
		Levels of the Psyche
			Conscious
			Personal Unconscious
			Collective Unconscious
			Archetypes
				Persona
				Shadow
				Anima
				Animus
				Great Mother
				Wise Old Man
				Hero
				Self
		Dynamics of Personality
			Causality and Teleology
			Progression and Regression
		Psychological Types
			Attitudes
				Introversion
				Extraversion
			Functions
				Thinking
				Feeling
				Sensing
				Intuiting
		Development of Personality
			Stages of Development
				Childhood
				Youth
				Middle Life
				Old Age
			Self-Realization
		Jung’s Methods ofInvestigation
			Word Association Test
			Dream Analysis
			Active Imagination
			Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			Personality Type and Leadership
			Personality Type Among Clergy and Churchgoers
			A Critical Look at the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
			Theoretical Criticism
			Empirical Criticism
			The MBTI Remains Popular Despite Criticisms
		Critique of Jung
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 5: Klein: Object Relations Theory
		Overview of Object Relations Theory
		Biography of Melanie Klein
		Introduction to Object Relations Theory
		Psychic Life of the Infant
			Phantasies
			Objects
		Positions
			Paranoid-Schizoid Position
			Depressive Position
		Psychic Defense Mechanisms
			Introjection
			Projection
			Splitting
			Projective Identification
		Internalizations
			Ego
			Superego
			Oedipus Complex
				Female Oedipal Development
				Male Oedipal Development
		Later Views on Object Relations
			Margaret Mahler’s View
			Heinz Kohut’s View
			John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
			Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation
		Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			Childhood Trauma and Adult Object Relations
			Attachment Theory and Adult Relationships
		Critique of Object Relations Theory
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 6: Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory
		Overview of Psychoanalytic SocialTheory
		Biography of Karen Horney
		Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory
			Horney and Freud Compared
			The Impact of Culture
			The Importance of Childhood Experiences
		Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
		Compulsive Drives
			Neurotic Needs
			Neurotic Trends
				Moving Toward People
				Moving Against People
				Moving Away From People
		Intrapsychic Conflicts
			The Idealized Self-Image
				The Neurotic Search for Glory
				Neurotic Claims
				Neurotic Pride
			Self-Hatred
		Feminine Psychology
		Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			The Neurotic Search for Glory in the Lab
			Can Neuroticism Ever Be a Good Thing?
		Critique of Horney
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 7: Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
		Overview of Post-Freudian Theory
		Biography of Erik Erikson
		The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory
			Society’s Influence
			Epigenetic Principle
		Stages of Psychosocial Development
			Infancy
				Oral-Sensory Mode
				Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust
				Hope: The Basic Strength of Infancy
			Early Childhood
				Anal–Urethral–Muscular Mode
				Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
				Will: The Basic Strength of Early Childhood
			Play Age
				Genital-Locomotor Mode
				Initiative versus Guilt
				Purpose: The Basic Strength of the Play Age
			School Age
				Latency
				Industry versus Inferiority
				Competence: The Basic Strength of the School Age
			Adolescence
				Puberty
				Identity versus Identity Confusion
				Fidelity: The Basic Strength of Adolescence
			Young Adulthood
				Genitality
				Intimacy versus Isolation
				Love: The Basic Strength of Young Adulthood
			Adulthood
				Procreativity
				Generativity versus Stagnation
				Care: The Basic Strength of Adulthood
			Old Age
				Generalized Sensuality
				Integrity versus Despair
				Wisdom: The Basic Strengthof Old Age
			Summary of the Life Cycle
		Erikson’s Methods of Investigation
			Anthropological Studies
			Psychohistory
		Related Research
			Adolescent Identity and the Internet
			The Development of Gender Identity
		Impact of Nature and Nurture on Gender Identity Formation
		Social Pressure to Conform to Typical Gender Identity
		Age of Gender Identity Disclosure and Social Networks
		Critique of Erikson
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 8: Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
		Overview of Humanistic Psychoanalysis
		Biography of Erich Fromm
		Fromm’s Basic Assumptions
		Human Needs
			Relatedness
			Transcendence
			Rootedness
			Sense of Identity
			Frame of Orientation
			Summary of Human Needs
		The Burden of Freedom
			Mechanisms of Escape
				Authoritarianism
				Destructiveness
				Conformity
			Positive Freedom
		Character Orientations
			Nonproductive Orientations
				Receptive
				Exploitative
				Hoarding
				Marketing
			The Productive Orientation
		Personality Disorders
			Necrophilia
			Malignant Narcissism
			Incestuous Symbiosis
		Psychotherapy
		Fromm’s Methods of Investigation
			Social Character in a Mexican Village
			A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler
		Related Research
			Testing the Assumptions of Fromm’s Marketing Character
			Estrangement from Culture and Well-Being
			Authoritarianism and Fear
		Critique of Fromm
		Concept of Humanity
Part III: Humanistic/Existential Theories
	Chapter 9: Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory
		Overview of Holistic-Dynamic Theory
		Biography of Abraham H. Maslow
		Maslow’s View of Motivation
			Hierarchy of Needs
				Physiological Needs
				Safety Needs
				Love and Belongingness Needs
				Esteem Needs
				Self-Actualization Needs
			Aesthetic Needs
			Cognitive Needs
			Neurotic Needs
			General Discussion of Needs
				Reversed Order of Needs
				Unmotivated Behavior
				Expressive and Coping Behavior
				Deprivation of Needs
				Instinctoid Nature of Needs
				Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs
		Self-Actualization
			Maslow’s Quest for the Self-Actualizing Person
			Criteria for Self-Actualization
			Values of Self-Actualizers
			Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
				More Efficient Perception of Reality
				Acceptance of Self, Others, and Nature
				Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness
				Problem-Centering
				The Need for Privacy
				Autonomy
				Continued Freshness of Appreciation
				The Peak Experience
				Gemeinschaftsgefühl
				Profound Interpersonal Relations
				The Democratic Character Structure
				Discrimination Between Means and Ends
				Philosophical Sense of Humor
				Creativeness
				Resistance to Enculturation
			Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization
		Maslow’s Psychology and Philosophyof Science
		Measuring Self-Actualization
		The Jonah Complex
		Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			Empirical Testing and an Evolutionary Update to the Hierarchy of Needs
			Positive Psychology
		Critique of Maslow
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 10: Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
		Overview of Client-Centered Theory
		Biography of Carl Rogers
		Person-Centered Theory
			Basic Assumptions
				Formative Tendency
				Actualizing Tendency
			The Self and Self-Actualization
				The Self-Concept
				The Ideal Self
			Awareness
				Levels of Awareness
				Denial of Positive Experiences
			Becoming a Person
			Barriers to Psychological Health
				Conditions of Worth
				Incongruence
				Defensiveness
				Disorganization
		Psychotherapy
			Conditions
				Counselor Congruence
				Unconditional Positive Regard
				Empathic Listening
			Process
				Stages of Therapeutic Change
				Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change
			Outcomes
		The Person of Tomorrow
		Philosophy of Science
		The Chicago Studies
			Hypotheses
			Method
			Findings
			Summary of Results
		Related Research
			Real-Ideal Self Discrepancy, Online Gaming, and the Brain
			Motivation and PursuingOne’s Goals
		Critique of Rogers
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 11: May: Existential Psychology
		Overview of Existential Psychology
		Biography of Rollo May
		Background of Existentialism
			What Is Existentialism?
			Basic Concepts
				Being-in-the-World
				Nonbeing
		The Case of Philip
		Anxiety
			Normal Anxiety
			Neurotic Anxiety
		Guilt
		Intentionality
		Care, Love, and Will
			Union of Love and Will
			Forms of Love
				Sex
				Eros
				Philia
				Agape
		Freedom and Destiny
			Freedom Defined
			Forms of Freedom
				Existential Freedom
				Essential Freedom
			What Is Destiny?
			Philip’s Destiny
		The Power of Myth
		Psychopathology
		Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			Threats in the Umwelt: Mortality Salience and Denial of Our Animal Nature
			Finding Meaning in the Mitwelt: Attachment and Close Relationships
			Growth in the Eigenwelt: There Is an Upside to Mortality Awareness
		Critique of May
		Concept of Humanity
Part IV: Dispositional Theories
	Chapter 12: Allport: Psychology of the Individual
		Overview of Allport’s Psychology of the Individual
		Biography of Gordon Allport
		Allport’s Approach to Personality Theory
			What Is Personality?
			What Is the Role of Conscious Motivation?
			What Are the Characteristics of a Healthy Person?
		Structure of Personality
			Personal Dispositions
				Levels of Personal Dispositions
				Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions
			Proprium
		Motivation
			A Theory of Motivation
			Functional Autonomy
				Perseverative Functional Autonomy
				Propriate Functional Autonomy
				Criterion for Functional Autonomy
				Processes That Are Not Functionally Autonomous
		The Study of the Individual
			Morphogenic Science
			The Diaries of Marion Taylor
			Letters From Jenny
		Related Research
			Understanding and Reducing Prejudice
			Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation
				Religious Motivation and Mental Health
				Extending Allport’s Religious Motivation to Other Religions
		Critique of Allport
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 13: McCrae and Costa’sFive-Factor Trait Theory
		Overview of Trait and Factor Theories
		The Pioneering Work of Raymond B. Cattell
		Basics of Factor Analysis
		The Big Five: Taxonomy or Theory?
		Biographies of Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr.
		In Search of the Big Five
			Five Factors Found
			Description of the Five Factors
		Evolution of the Five-Factor Theory
			Units of the Five-Factor Theory
				Core Components of Personality
				Peripheral Components
			Basic Postulates
				Postulates for Basic Tendencies
				Postulates for Characteristic Adaptations
		Related Research
			Consistency and Change of Personality over the Lifetime
			Personality Consistency
			Personality Change
			Measuring the Big Five with Our Digital Footprints
		Critique of Trait and Factor Theories
		Concept of Humanity
Part V: Biological/Evolutionary Theories
	Chapter 14: Eysenck’s Biologically Based Factor Theory
		Overview of Biologically Based Trait Theory
		Biography of Hans J. Eysenck
		Eysenck’s Factor Theory
			Criteria for Identifying Factors
			Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
		Dimensions of Personality
			Extraversion
			Neuroticism
			Psychoticism
		Measuring Personality
		Biological Bases of Personality
		Personality as a Predictor
			Personality and Behavior
			Personality and Disease
		Related Research
			The Biological Basis of Extraversion
			The Biological Basis of Neuroticism
		Critique of Eysenck’s Biologically Based Theory
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 15: Buss: Evolutionary Theory of Personality
		Overview of Evolutionary Theory
		Biography of David Buss
		Principles of Evolutionary Psychology
		Evolutionary Theory of Personality
			The Nature and Nurture of Personality
			Adaptive Problems and their Solutions (Mechanisms)
			Evolved Mechanisms
				Motivation and Emotion as Evolved Mechanisms
				Personality Traits as Evolved Mechanisms
			Origins of Individual Differences
				Environmental Sources
				Heritable/Genetic Sources
				Nonadapative Sources
				Maladaptive Sources
			Neo-Bussian Evolutionary Theories of Personality
		Common Misunderstandings in Evolutionary Theory
			Evolution Implies Genetic Determinism (Behavior as Set in Stone and Void of Influence from the Environment)
			Executing Adaptations Requires Conscious Mechanisms
			Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed
		Related Research
			Evolutionary Origins of Personality: Traits as Related to Fitness
			Genetics and Personality
			Animal Personality
		Critique of Evolutionary Theory of Personality
		Concept of Humanity
Part VI: Learning-Cognitive Theories
	Chapter 16: Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
		Overview of Behavioral Analysis
		Biography of B. F. Skinner
		Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism
		Scientific Behaviorism
			Philosophy of Science
			Characteristics of Science
		Conditioning
			Classical Conditioning
			Operant Conditioning
				Shaping
				Reinforcement
				Punishment
				Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers
				Schedules of Reinforcement
				Extinction
		The Human Organism
			Natural Selection
			Cultural Evolution
			Inner States
				Self-Awareness
				Drives
				Emotions
				Purpose and Intention
			Complex Behavior
				Higher Mental Processes
				Creativity
				Unconscious Behavior
				Dreams
				Social Behavior
			Control of Human Behavior
				Social Control
				Self-Control
		The Unhealthy Personality
			Counteracting Strategies
			Inappropriate Behaviors
		Psychotherapy
		Related Research
			How Conditioning Affects Personality
			How Personality Affects Conditioning
			Mutual Influence Between Personality and Conditioning
		Critique of Skinner
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 17: Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
		Overview of Social Cognitive Theory
		Biography of Albert Bandura
		Learning
			Observational Learning
				Modeling
				Processes Governing Observational Learning
			Enactive Learning
		Triadic Reciprocal Causation
			An Example of Triadic Reciprocal Causation
			Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events
		Human Agency
			Core Features of Human Agency
			Self-Efficacy
				What Is Self-Efficacy?
				What Contributes to Self-Efficacy?
			Proxy Agency
			Collective Efficacy
		Self-Regulation
			External Factors in Self-Regulation
			Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
				Self-Observation
				Judgmental Process
				Self-Reaction
			Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency
				Redefine the Behavior
				Disregard or Distort the Consequences of Behavior
				Dehumanize or Blame the Victims
				Displace or Diffuse Responsibility
		Dysfunctional Behavior
			Depression
			Phobias
			Aggression
		Therapy
		Related Research
			Self-Efficacy and Diabetes
			Moral Disengagement and Bullying
			Social Cognitive Theory “Goes Global”
		Critique of Bandura
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 18: Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory
		Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
		Biography of Julian Rotter
		Introduction to Rotter’s Social Learning Theory
		Predicting Specific Behaviors
			Behavior Potential
			Expectancy
			Reinforcement Value
			Psychological Situation
			Basic Prediction Formula
		Predicting General Behaviors
			Generalized Expectancies
			Needs
				Categories of Needs
				Need Components
			General Prediction Formula
			Internal and External Control of Reinforcement
			Interpersonal Trust Scale
		Maladaptive Behavior
		Psychotherapy
			Changing Goals
			Eliminating Low Expectancies
		Introduction to Mischel’s Personality Theory
		Biography of Walter Mischel
		Background of the Cognitive-Affective Personality System
			Consistency Paradox
			Person-Situation Interaction
		Cognitive-Affective Personality System
			Behavior Prediction
			Situation Variables
			Cognitive-Affective Units
				Encoding Strategies
				Competencies and Self-Regulatory Strategies
				Expectancies and Beliefs
				Goals and Values
				Affective Responses
		Related Research
			Internalized Racial Oppression and Locus of Control
			Person-Situation Interaction
			Marshmallows and Self-Regulation Across the Lifespan
		Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
		Concept of Humanity
	Chapter 19: Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs
		Overview of Personal Construct Theory
		Biography of George Kelly
		Kelly’s Philosophical Position
			Person as Scientist
			Scientist as Person
			Constructive Alternativism
		Personal Constructs
			Basic Postulate
			Supporting Corollaries
				Similarities Among Events
				Differences Among People
				Relationships Among Constructs
				Dichotomy of Constructs
				Choice Between Dichotomies
				Range of Convenience
				Experience and Learning
				Adaptation to Experience
				Incompatible Constructs
				Similarities Among People
				Social Processes
		Applications of Personal Construct Theory
			Abnormal Development
				Threat
				Fear
				Anxiety
				Guilt
			Psychotherapy
			The Rep Test
		Related Research
			The Rep Test and Teens with Autism Spectrum Disorder
			Applying Personal Construct Theory to Intra-Personal Questions of Identity
				Understanding Internalized Prejudice Through Personal Construct Theory
				Reducing the Threat to Feminist Identification
			Personal Constructs and the Big Five
		Critique of Kelly
		Concept of Humanity
Glossary
Name Index
Subject Index