Theoretical Sociology: 1830 to the Present

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Brief Contents......Page 8
Detailed Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 28
The Enlightenment and New Ways of Thinking......Page 31
The Intellectual Revolution......Page 32
The Political and Economic Revolutions......Page 35
Science as a Belief System......Page 37
Principles and Propositions......Page 42
Analytical Models......Page 43
Conclusion......Page 45
PART I: THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, 1830–1935......Page 47
Chapter 2: Auguste Comte and the Emergence of Sociology......Page 48
Comte's Early Essays......Page 49
Comte's View of Sociological Theory......Page 51
Experimentation......Page 54
Comte's Organization of Sociology......Page 55
Social Statics......Page 56
Social Dynamics......Page 58
Comte's Advocacy of Sociology......Page 60
Conclusions......Page 62
Chapter 3: Herbert Spencer......Page 65
Spencer's Moral Philosophy: Social Statics and The Principles of Ethics......Page 66
Spencer's First Principles......Page 68
The Methodological Problems Confronting Sociology......Page 70
The Theoretical Argument......Page 72
A Note on Spencer's Descriptive Sociology......Page 74
Spencer's The Principles of Sociology......Page 77
The Superorganic and the Organismic Analogy......Page 78
System Growth, Differentiation, and Integration......Page 79
Geopolitical Dynamics......Page 82
Stages of Societal Evolution......Page 83
Sequences of Differentiation......Page 86
System Dialectics and Phases......Page 88
Classifying Social Systems......Page 91
The Analysis of Societal Institutions......Page 94
Domestic Institutions and Kinship......Page 96
Ceremonial Institutions......Page 97
Political Institutions......Page 98
Religious Institutions......Page 99
Economic Institutions......Page 100
Spencer's Analytical Models of Societal Structures......Page 101
Spencer's Abstract Theoretical Principles......Page 107
Conclusions......Page 112
The German Ideology......Page 117
The Nature of Social Theory......Page 118
The Characteristics of All Societies......Page 119
Marx's Theoretical Methodology......Page 122
The Communist Manifesto......Page 124
Bourgeoisie and Proletarians......Page 125
Proletarians and Communists......Page 129
Reactionary Socialism......Page 131
Communist and Other Opposition Parties......Page 132
Marx's View of Capitalism in Historical Context......Page 133
Marx's Model of Stratification and Class Conflict......Page 134
Capital......Page 138
The Labor Theory of Value......Page 139
Surplus Value......Page 141
The Demise of Capitalism......Page 143
Capitalism in Historical Context......Page 145
Marx's Theoretical Legacy......Page 146
The General Model of History and Evolution......Page 147
The Model of Conflict......Page 151
Principles of Social Organization......Page 154
Principles of Inequality and Change in Social Systems......Page 155
Correcting Marx's Theory......Page 160
Conclusions......Page 161
Weber's Methodology of the Social Sciences......Page 169
Value-Free Sociology......Page 170
The Connection Between Values and Science......Page 171
General Ideal Types......Page 172
Weber's Image of Social Organization......Page 174
Charismatic Domination......Page 179
Traditional Domination......Page 180
Rational-Legal Domination......Page 181
Class......Page 183
Status Groups......Page 187
Weber's Model of Social Change......Page 189
Weber's Model of Stratification and Geopolitics......Page 190
Weber on Capitalism and Rationalization......Page 192
Weber's Study of Religion......Page 194
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism......Page 195
Weber's Comparative Studies of Religion and Capitalism......Page 203
Weber's Outline of the Social System......Page 205
Weber's Model of Rationalization......Page 207
Weber's Model of Culture and Rationalization......Page 210
Weber's Model of Markets, Money, Power, and Law......Page 212
Weber's Model of Stratification and Conflict......Page 213
Weber's Model of Geopolitics......Page 216
Weber's Theoretical Principles......Page 217
Principles on the Process of Rationalization......Page 218
Principles on De-Legitimation and Conflict......Page 220
Principles on De-Legitimation and Geopolitics......Page 221
Conclusions......Page 222
Simmel's Methodological Approach to the Study of Society......Page 227
What Is Society?......Page 228
How Should Sociology Study Society?......Page 229
What Are the Problem Areas of Sociology?......Page 230
Pure, or Formal, Sociology......Page 231
Philosophical Sociology......Page 232
The Web of Group Affiliations as a Social Form......Page 233
Structural Changes Accompanying Social Differentiation......Page 234
The Consequences of Differentiation......Page 235
Conflict......Page 237
Conflict as a Social Form......Page 238
Conflict as a Threat to the Group......Page 239
Conflict Among Recognized and Accepted Opponents......Page 240
Conflict and Centralization of Power......Page 241
Conflict, Coalitions, and Group Formation......Page 242
Exchange as a Social Form......Page 244
Simmel's Assumptions about Human Nature......Page 245
Money in Social Exchange......Page 247
Money and Its Consequences for Social Relations......Page 248
Money and the Social Whole......Page 249
Money and the Individual......Page 252
Simmel's Theoretical Legacy......Page 253
Simmel's Model of Social Organization......Page 254
Simmel's Model of Differentiation and Group Affiliations......Page 257
Simmel's Model of Money, Markets, and Differentiation......Page 259
Simmel's Model of Social Differentiation, Conflict, and Societal Integration......Page 261
Simmel's Analysis of the Process of Differentiation......Page 264
Simmel on Conflict......Page 266
Conclusions......Page 268
Social Solidarity......Page 274
The Collective Conscience......Page 275
Mechanical and Organic Solidarity......Page 276
Social Change......Page 279
Pathology and Abnormal Forms......Page 281
The Anomic Division of Labor......Page 282
Inequality and the Forced Division of Labor......Page 284
Lack of Coordination......Page 285
What Is a Social Fact?......Page 286
Rules for the Observation of Social Facts......Page 287
Rules for the Classification of Social Types......Page 288
Rules for Establishing Sociological Proofs......Page 289
Suicide......Page 290
Egoistic Suicide......Page 291
Anomic Suicide......Page 292
Suicide and Deviance......Page 293
Suicide and the Social Organization of Organic Societies......Page 294
The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life......Page 295
An Overview of Durkheim's Argument......Page 296
Practical Concerns......Page 299
Theoretical Concerns......Page 300
Social Psychological Concerns......Page 301
What Is Morality?......Page 303
Voluntary Constraint......Page 304
Durkheim's Theoretical Legacy......Page 306
Durkheim's Underlying Causal Model......Page 307
Principles of Social Differentiation......Page 312
Principles of System Integration......Page 314
Principles of Deviance......Page 317
Principles of System Malintegration......Page 318
Conclusions......Page 320
Mead's Broader Philosophy......Page 327
Mead's View of the “Life Process”......Page 328
Mead's Social Behaviorism......Page 329
Gestures and Mind......Page 331
Significant Symbols and Mind......Page 333
Role-taking and Mind......Page 334
The Genesis of Mind......Page 335
The Social Nature of Self......Page 336
The Structure of Self......Page 337
Phases of the Self......Page 338
The Genesis of Self......Page 339
The Behavioral Basis of Society......Page 343
The Process of Society......Page 346
The Morphology of Society......Page 348
The Philosophy of the Act......Page 350
Impulse......Page 351
Perception......Page 352
Manipulation......Page 353
Consummation......Page 354
Mead's Theoretical Legacy......Page 356
Mead's Causal Model of Social Processes......Page 358
Principles of Animal Action......Page 360
Principles of Animal Interaction......Page 361
Principles of Human Action, Interaction, and Organization......Page 362
Conclusions......Page 369
Chapter 9: The Classical Roots of Contemporary Theorizing......Page 374
1. Functional Theorizing......Page 376
Stage Theories......Page 378
Biological Theories......Page 380
3. General Systems Theorizing......Page 382
4. Ecological Theorizing......Page 385
5. Conflict Theorizing......Page 388
Neo-Marxist Analytical Theories......Page 390
Neo-Weberian Analytical Theories......Page 391
Analytical Synthetic Conflict Theories......Page 392
World-Systems Theorizing......Page 393
Analytical Function Conflict Theory......Page 394
6. Interactionist Theorizing......Page 395
Symbolic Interactionism......Page 396
Role Theories......Page 397
Status Theories......Page 398
Dramaturgical Theories......Page 400
Theories of Emotions......Page 401
Phenomenological Interactionism......Page 403
Ethnomethodology......Page 404
7. Exchange Theorizing......Page 405
8. Structuralist Theories......Page 409
Structuralism......Page 411
Structuration Theory......Page 412
9. Cultural Theorizing......Page 413
10. Critical Theorizing......Page 416
American-Style Critical Theory......Page 418
Postmodern Theorizing......Page 419
Conclusions......Page 420
PART II: THE MODERN ERA OF THEORIZING......Page 428
How Functionalism Survived......Page 429
The Functionalism of A. R. Radcliffe-Brown......Page 430
The Functionalism of Bronislaw Malinowski......Page 432
The Structure of Social Action......Page 434
The Social System......Page 437
The Transition to Functional Requisites......Page 442
The Informational Hierarchy of Control......Page 443
Generalized Media of Exchange......Page 445
The Analysis of Social Change......Page 446
The Human Condition......Page 448
System and Environment......Page 450
Dimensions of the Environment......Page 451
Organizational Systems......Page 452
System Differentiation, Integration, and Conflict......Page 453
Communication and Codes......Page 456
Reflexivity and Self-Thematization......Page 457
The Underlying Mechanisms of Evolution......Page 458
Evolution and Social Differentiation......Page 460
Politics as a Social System......Page 463
The Autonomy of the Legal System......Page 466
The Economy as a Social System......Page 467
Conclusions......Page 470
Early Systems Approaches......Page 474
General Systems Theory......Page 475
Energy, Matter, and Information......Page 476
Open and Closed Systems......Page 477
Cybernetic Systems......Page 478
System Levels......Page 479
Living Systems: James G. Miller's Analysis......Page 480
Conclusions......Page 486
Theorizing on Urban Ecology......Page 491
Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman's Ecological Theory......Page 496
J. Miller McPherson's Ecological Theory......Page 499
Production, Transportation, and Communication......Page 503
The Environment......Page 504
Functions and Key Functions......Page 505
Equilibrium and Change......Page 507
Growth and Evolution......Page 509
Conclusions......Page 515
Chapter 13: Evolutionary Theorizing......Page 519
The Early Theory......Page 520
Gerhard Lenski, Patrick Nolan, and Jean Lenski's Evolutionary Theory......Page 524
The Four Action Systems......Page 528
Stages of Societal Evolution......Page 529
Problems in Theoretical Sociology......Page 534
Saving the Useful Part of Functionalism......Page 535
Selection as a Driving Force of Evolution......Page 536
Building a Simple Analytical Scheme......Page 538
Generalized Symbolic Media and Cultural Integration......Page 540
Symbolic Media and Stratification......Page 542
Evolution, Differentiation, and Structural Integration......Page 543
The Utility of Stage Models of Societal Evolution......Page 546
Darwinian-Inspired Evolutionary Theories......Page 547
Pierre van den Berghe's Approach......Page 548
Explanations of Social Phenomena with Sociobiology......Page 552
Joseph Lopreato's Approach......Page 554
Evolutionary Psychology......Page 559
Richard Machalek's Approach......Page 562
Alexandra Maryanski's Approach......Page 567
Making Evolutionary Theorizing More Darwinian, Biological......Page 571
Conclusions......Page 572
Ralf Dahrendorf's Dialectical Conflict Theory......Page 578
Making Marx's Theory More Abstract......Page 579
Developing Explanatory Propositions......Page 580
Lewis Coser's Functional Conflict Theory......Page 582
The Causes of Conflict......Page 583
The Violence of Conflict......Page 584
The Duration of Conflict......Page 585
The Functions of Conflict......Page 586
Later Analytical Theorizing: Randall Collins......Page 588
The Early Conceptualization of Interaction Rituals......Page 589
Talk and Ritual......Page 591
Deference and Demeanor......Page 593
Class Cultures......Page 595
Organizational Processes......Page 596
The State and the Economy......Page 598
Geopolitics......Page 599
Ritual and Emotions......Page 601
The Power of Confrontational Tension and Fear......Page 604
The Escalation and De-escalation of Conflict......Page 605
Neo-Marxian Class Analysis: Erik Olin Wright......Page 608
Social Class, Emancipation, and History......Page 609
Micro-Level Versus Macro-Level Class Analysis......Page 610
Material Interests......Page 611
Lived Experiences......Page 612
The Problem of the Middle Classes......Page 613
Contradictory Class Locations......Page 614
Multiple Exploitation......Page 615
The Emerging Scheme......Page 616
Sustaining the Emancipatory Dream: Envisioning Real Utopias......Page 618
The Overall Model......Page 619
Alternative Trajectories of Transformation......Page 621
Assessing Wright's Neo-Marxist Approach......Page 623
World Empires and World Economy......Page 624
Core, Periphery, and Semi-periphery......Page 625
The Dynamics of the World Economy......Page 627
Other Cyclical Dynamics in the World Economy......Page 628
The End of Capitalism......Page 629
Conclusion......Page 630
George C. Homans's Behavioristic Approach......Page 636
Borrowing from B. F. Skinner......Page 637
The Basic Exchange Principles......Page 638
From Behavior to Macrostructure......Page 642
Peter M. Blau's Dialectical Theory of Exchange......Page 644
The Basic Exchange Principles......Page 645
Elementary Systems of Exchange......Page 646
Strains Toward Integration......Page 648
Macrostructural Exchange Systems......Page 651
Richard M. Emerson's Power Dependence Theory of Exchange......Page 657
The Core Ideas......Page 658
Social Structure, Networks, and Exchange......Page 659
James S. Coleman's Early Advocacy and Mature Theory......Page 667
Transferring Rights to Act......Page 668
The Demand for Norms and Sanctions......Page 669
Exchange Theorizing Today in Sociology......Page 671
The Basic Problem of Order in Rational Choice Theorizing......Page 672
The Basis of Social Control......Page 674
Types of Groups......Page 675
The Determinants of Group Solidarity......Page 677
Patterns of Control in Groups......Page 678
Macrostructural Implications......Page 680
Commitment in Exchange Networks......Page 682
Refining the Theory of Emotions......Page 686
A General Theory of Commitments to Macrostructures......Page 691
Conclusions......Page 694
Sheldon Stryker's Identity Theory......Page 698
Identities and the Salience Hierarchy......Page 699
The Key Propositions......Page 700
Identity and Emotions......Page 702
Role Identity and Role Support......Page 703
The Mechanisms for Maintaining Role Support......Page 704
The Hierarchy of Prominence......Page 705
The Underlying Exchange Dynamic......Page 706
Peter J. Burke's Identity Control Theory......Page 707
Identity as a Cybernetic Control System......Page 708
Multiple Identities......Page 710
Identity Verification......Page 711
Failure to Verify Identity......Page 712
Psychoanalytically Oriented Symbolic Interactionist Theories: Thomas Scheff and Jonathan Turner......Page 714
Thomas Scheff's Theory of Pride and Shame......Page 715
Jonathan Turner's Theory of Emotions and Transactional Needs......Page 719
Conclusions......Page 725
Robert Park's Role Theory......Page 729
Ralph Linton on Status and Roles......Page 730
Role Theorizing......Page 731
The Process of Role-making......Page 732
The Tentative Nature of Interaction......Page 733
Self-Conceptions and Roles......Page 734
Building a Role Theory......Page 735
Generating Explanatory Laws......Page 739
Expanding the Notions of Role-taking and Role-making......Page 741
Activating Microdynamic Forces in Interaction......Page 742
Status Theorizing......Page 745
The Phenomenology of Status......Page 746
Clarity of Status in Situations......Page 747
Expectation States and Status......Page 748
The Core Ideas of Expectation States Theorizing......Page 749
Application of Core Ideas in Expectation States Theorizing......Page 750
Stability and Change in Status Beliefs......Page 761
Expectation States Theories of Affect......Page 763
Conclusions......Page 772
The Interaction Order......Page 778
The Dramaturgical Metaphor......Page 779
The Presentation of Self......Page 780
Encounters......Page 784
Ritual......Page 786
Roles......Page 788
Self......Page 789
Talk......Page 790
Disruption and Repair in Focused Interaction......Page 793
Unfocused Encounters......Page 794
Frames and the Organization of Experience......Page 797
Primary Frames......Page 798
Fabrications......Page 799
The Complexity of Experience......Page 800
Extensions of Goffmanian Dramaturgy......Page 801
Arlie Hochschild on Emotional Labor......Page 802
Morris Rosenberg on Reflexivity and Dramatic Presentations......Page 804
Emotional Displays......Page 805
The Sources of Discrepancy......Page 806
Candace Clark's Theory on the Dramaturgy and Strategy of Sympathy......Page 807
Strategic Dimensions of Sympathy Giving......Page 808
Societal Changes and the Extension of Sympathy......Page 809
Sympathy Etiquette......Page 811
Randall Collins on Interaction Rituals......Page 812
Conclusions......Page 814
Chapter 19: Phenomenological and Ethnomethodological Theorizing......Page 820
Edmund Husserl's Project......Page 821
Alfred Schutz's Phenomenological Interactionism......Page 823
Contemporary Ethnomethodological Theorizing......Page 826
The Indexicality of Meaning......Page 827
Harold Garfinkel's Early Studies......Page 828
Aaron V. Cicourel's Critique......Page 830
Using the Et Cetera Principle......Page 831
Harvey Sacks's Analysis of Conversational Turn Taking......Page 832
Zimmerman, Pollner, and Wieder's Situational Approach......Page 833
Emanuel Schegloff's Conversation Analysis......Page 834
Confirming Allusions......Page 835
Repair After Next Turn......Page 836
Overlaps in Conversations......Page 837
Conclusions......Page 838
Chapter 20: Structural and Structuralist Theorizing......Page 841
The French Structural Tradition: Claude Lévi-Strauss......Page 842
The British Structuralist Tradition: Anthony Giddens's Structuration Theory......Page 848
Structuration......Page 849
Reconceptualizing Structure and Social System......Page 850
Reconceptualizing Institutions......Page 853
Agents, Agency, and Action......Page 856
Routinization and Regionalization of Interactions......Page 859
S. F. Nadel and Network Analysis......Page 862
Jacob Moreno and Sociometric Techniques......Page 863
Studies of Communications in Groups......Page 865
Early Gestalt and Balance Approaches: Heider, Newcomb, Cartwright, and Harary......Page 867
Points and Nodes......Page 870
Links, Ties, and Connections......Page 871
Patterns and Configurations of Ties......Page 872
Reciprocity of Ties......Page 873
Density of Ties......Page 874
Bridges......Page 875
Centrality......Page 876
Equivalence......Page 877
Can Network Analysis Make Conceptions of Structure More Precise?......Page 878
Conclusions......Page 880
Chapter 21: Cultural Theorizing......Page 886
Cultural Structure, Ritual, and Institutional Context......Page 887
The Structure of Moral Codes......Page 888
Institutional Context......Page 890
The Dynamics of the Moral Order......Page 891
Criticisms of Existing Theories......Page 894
The Critique of Interactionism and Phenomenology......Page 895
The Critique of Utilitarianism......Page 896
Classes and Capital......Page 898
Class Cultures and Habitus......Page 902
Cultural Pragmatics: Jeffrey C. Alexander......Page 904
History of Ritualized Performances......Page 905
Challenges and Strategies Employed in Performances......Page 907
Why Pragmatics?......Page 909
Conclusions......Page 910
The Postmodern Critique of Science......Page 915
Jean-François Lyotard......Page 917
Richard Rorty......Page 918
Richard Harvey Brown's “Society as Text”......Page 919
Mark Gottdiener's and Steven Seidman's Critique......Page 920
Economic Postmodernism......Page 921
Fredric Jameson......Page 922
David Harvey......Page 925
Scott Lash and John Urry......Page 927
Jean Baudrillard......Page 930
Kenneth Gergen......Page 932
Norman Denzin and Douglas Kellner......Page 933
Mark Gottdiener......Page 934
Zygmunt Bauman......Page 935
Formalizing the Postmodernist Argument......Page 937
Conclusions......Page 942
Strains of Critical Theorizing in Europe......Page 947
The Critical Thrust of Karl Marx's Analysis of Capitalism......Page 948
Simmel's Defense of Modernity and Implicit Attack on Marx......Page 951
The Frankfurt School and the Cultural Turn......Page 953
György Lukács......Page 955
Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno......Page 956
Gramsci's Theory of Ideological Hegemony......Page 957
Althusser's Structuralism......Page 958
The Transformation of Marx's Project......Page 959
The Modern Frankfurt School: Jürgen Habermas......Page 960
Habermas's Conception of “The Public Sphere”......Page 961
The Critique of Science......Page 962
Legitimation Crisis in Societies......Page 964
Early Analysis of Speech and Interaction......Page 966
Habermas's Reconceptualization of Evolution......Page 968
The Theory of Communicative Action......Page 970
The Overall Project......Page 971
The Reconceptualization of Action and Rationality......Page 972
The Lifeworld and System Processes of Society......Page 974
Evolutionary Dynamics and Societal Crises......Page 975
Conclusions: The Goal of Critical Theory......Page 976
Chapter 24: American-Style Critical Theorizing......Page 982
The Feminist Critique of Sociological Theory: Gender, Politics, and Patriarchy......Page 983
Early Challenges to Social Science......Page 984
A Sociology for Women: Feminist Methodologies, Epistemologies, and Standpoint Theories......Page 987
Critiquing the Critique: Challenges to Critical Feminist Theory......Page 995
Critical Race Theory......Page 997
Critical Theories of Race and Racism......Page 1000
Conclusions......Page 1001
PART III: THE STATE OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY......Page 1008
Chapter 25: Elements of Scientific Theorizing in Sociology......Page 1009
Concepts: The Basic Building Blocks of Theory......Page 1010
Theoretical Statements and Formats......Page 1012
Meta-theoretical Schemes......Page 1014
Analytical Schemes......Page 1015
Discursive Schemes......Page 1017
Propositional Schemes......Page 1018
Axiomatic Formats......Page 1019
Formal Formats......Page 1020
Empirical Formats......Page 1021
Modeling Schemes......Page 1024
Conclusions: Assessing Diverse Theoretical Approaches......Page 1027
Chapter 26: Overcoming Roadblocks to Cumulative Explanatory Theory in Sociology......Page 1037
Value Neutrality: Is This Possible? Even Desirable?......Page 1038
Why Some Proclaim That Sociology Cannot Be a Natural Science......Page 1040
Hermeneutical Dualisms......Page 1041
Scientific Politics......Page 1043
Critical Discourse......Page 1044
Conclusions: Is a Natural Science of Society Possible?......Page 1045
Index......Page 1048
About the Author......Page 1119