Theological turning points: major issues in Christian thought

Introduction
1. Trinitarian Controversy: Who Is God? 4
Biblical Basis 4
God Is One 5
God Is Three 6
Backgrounds to Nicaea 8
Apostolic Fathers and Apologists 9
Irenaeus 10
Tertullian 11
Origen 12
Summary 13
Turning Point: The Nicene Crisis 14
Arius 14
Council of Nicaea 15
Post-Nicene Developments 16
Athanasius 17
The Cappadocians 18
Council of Constantinople 19
Augustine 19
2. Christological Controversy: Who Is Jesus Christ? 22
Biblical Basis 22
Backgrounds to Chalcedon 25
Early Trends 25
Apologists and Second-Century Theologians 27
Justin Martyr 27
Melito of Sardis and Irenaeus 28
Tertullian and Origen 29
Arius and Nicaea 31
Athanasius 32
Apollinarius 33
Cappadocian Reaction 34
Antiochene Christology: Theodore of Mopsuestia 35
Turning Point: The Chalcedonian Crisis 37
Nestorius 37
Cyril of Alexandria 39
From Ephesus to Eutyches 40
Leo I 41
The Chalcedonian Formula 42
Aftermath of Chalcedon 43
3. Ecclesiological Controversy: What Is the Church? 44
Biblical Basis 45
Early Ecclesiology 47
Apostolic Fathers 47
Irenaeus 48
Tertullian 49
Origen 50
Turning Point: The Question of the Lapsed 50
Cyprian and Novatian 52
Turning Point: The Mystical Body 54
Donatism 55
Augustine 56
After Augustine 59
4. Anthropological Controversy: What Is Humanity? 60
Biblical Basis 61
Old Testament Perspectives 61
New Testament Perspectives 62
Anthropology East and West 64
Early Anthropology 65
Irenaeus 66
Tertullian 66
Clement and Origen 67
Fourth and Fifth Centuries 68
Athanasius and the East 69
Ambrose and the West 69
Turning Point: Pelagius and Augustine 70
What Is Humanity? 73
5. Soteriological Controversy: How Are We Saved? 74
Biblical Basis 75
Salvation in the Early Church 79
Salvation as Illumination: Apostolic Fathers and Apologists 79
Salvation as Restoration: Irenaeus 80
Salvation as Satisfaction: Tertullian 81
Salvation as Victory: Origen 82
Salvation as Deification: Athanasius and the Eastern Theologians 83 Turning Point: Augustine and Pelagius 85
Salvation as Justification 85
Continuing Controversies and the Synod of Orange 89
Turning Point: Luther and Trent 89
Luther and Salvation 90
Trent and Salvation 93
Divergences and Convergences 95
6. Authority Controversy: Where Is Authority? 96
Biblical Basis 97
Sources of Authority in the Early Church 98
Canon: Old and New Testaments 98
Creeds and Councils 101
Church Leadership 102
Authority in the Middle Ages 104
Growth of the Papacy 104
Scripture and Tradition 106
Turning Point: Calvin and Catholicism 109
Calvin and Authority 109
Catholicism and Authority HI
Later Developments 113
7. Sacramental Controversy: What Are the Sacraments?
What is Baptism? 115
The Nature of the Sacraments 116
Biblical Basis H6
Sacramental Terminology H?
The Number of Sacraments 118
The Definition of Sacrament 119
Baptism
Biblical Basis 125
Baptism in the Early Church 126
Baptism in the Middle Ages 129
Baptism in the Reformation 130
8. Sacramental Controversy: What Is the Lord\'s Supper? 134
Biblical Basis 134
The Lord\'s Supper in the Early Church 135
The Lord\'s Supper in the Middle Ages 139
The Lord\'s Supper in the Reformation 142
9. Eschatological Controversy: What Is the Kingdom? 151
Biblical Basis 152
Early Eschatology 155
The Millennial Kingdom 155
The Kingdom in Augustine 157
The Kingdom after Augustine 159
Reformation Eschatology 160
Luther 160
Calvin 161
Later Developments 163
10. Theological Turning Points Today 166
Who Is God Today? 166
Who Is Jesus Christ Today? 167
What Is the Church Today? 168
What Is Humanity Today? 170
What Is Salvation Today? 171
Where Is Authority Today? 172
What Are the Sacraments Today? 173
What Is the Kingdom Today? 174
Turning Points Today 175
Abbreviations 177
Notes 179
Selected Bibliography 205
Index 208