The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology

Title page
Copyright page
Contents
Preface
1: The Vocal Tract
	1.1 seeing the vocal tract: tools for speech research
	1.2 the parts of the vocal tract
		1.2.1 the sub-laryngeal vocal tract
		1.2.2 the larynx
		1.2.3 the supra-laryngeal vocal tract
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	Go online
	references
2: Basics of Articulation
	2.1 the dance of the articulators
	2.2 phonetic transcription
	2.3 the building blocks of speech
		2.3.1 airstream, larynx, and velum
		2.3.2 manner of articulation
		2.3.3 place of articulation for consonants
		2.3.4 vowels
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	Go online
3: A Tour of the Consonants
	3.1 “exotic” sounds and the phonetic environment
	3.2 pulmonic consonants
		3.2.1 stops, nasals, and fricatives
		3.2.2 laterals, trills, taps, and other approximants
		3.2.3 contour and complex segments
	3.3 non-pulmonic consonants
		3.3.1 implosives
		3.3.2 ejectives
		3.3.3 clicks
	3.4 positional variation in English
		3.4.1 laryngeal configuration
		3.4.2 change in place
		3.4.3 change in manner
		3.4.4 other changes
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	Go online
	references
4: A Map of the Vowels
	4.1 the landscape
	4.2 cardinal vowels
	4.3 building inventories: dimensions of vowel quality
		4.3.1 height and backness
		4.3.2 tense/lax
		4.3.3 rounding
		4.3.4 central vowels
		4.3.5 contrasts among the low vowels
	4.4 nasality and voice quality
	4.5 length and diphthongs
	4.6 tone
	4.7 positional variants of the vowels of English
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	references
5: Anatomy, Physiology, and Gestural Coordination
	5.1 anatomy and physiology of respiration
	5.2 anatomy and physiology of the larynx
	5.3 anatomy of the tongue and supra-laryngeal vocal tract
		5.3.1 the jaw
		5.3.2 the tongue
		5.3.3 the pharynx and velum
		5.3.4 the lips
	5.4 gestural coordination
	5.5 palatography
		Equipment
		To make a linguogram
		To make a palatogram
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	Go online
6: The Physics of Sound
	6.1 what is sound?
	6.2 simple harmonic motion: a pendulum and a tuning fork
		Formula 6.1
	6.3 adding sinusoids: complex waves
	6.4 sound propagation
		Formula 6.2
		Formula 6.3
	6.5 decibels
		Formula 6.4
	6.6 resonance
	6.7 the vocal tract as a sound-producing device: source-filter theory
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	Go online
7: Looking at Speech
	7.1 pre-digital speech
	7.2 digitization
		7.2.1 sampling
		7.2.2 quantization
		7.2.3 digital recording
	7.3 looking at waveforms
	7.4 spectra
		7.4.1 spectrum of the glottal source
		7.4.2 spectrum of a noise source
		7.4.3 spectra of vowels
	7.5 spectrograms
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	references
8: Speech Analysis
	8.1 building sounds up
		8.1.1 sinusoids as circular motion
		8.1.2 harmonics: standing waves in a string
		8.1.3 formants: resonances of a tube of air
		8.1.4 calculating resonances for other vocal tract configurations
	8.2 breaking sounds down
		8.2.1 RMS amplitude
		8.2.2 autocorrelation pitch analysis
		8.2.3 Fourier analysis
		8.2.4 linear predictive coding
		techniques of speech analysis
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	references
9: Hearing and Speech Perception
	9.1 anatomy and physiology of the ear
	9.2 neuro-anatomy
		9.2.1 studying the brain
		9.2.2 primary auditory pathways
	9.3 speech perception
		9.3.1 non-linearity
		9.3.2 variability and invariance
		9.3.3 cue integration
		9.3.4 top-down processing
		9.3.5 units of perception
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	Go online
	references
10: Phonology 1
	10.1 the necessity of abstraction
	10.2 contrast and predictability: phonemes and allophones
		10.2.1 defining the phoneme
		10.2.2 phonemic analysis
	10.3 some complicating factors
		10.3.1 is one allophone always “basic”?
		10.3.2 phonetic similarity and complementary distribution
		10.3.3 free variation
		10.3.4 positional neutralization
	10.4 Structuralism, Behaviorism, and the decline of phonemic analysis
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
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11: Phonotactics and Alternations
	11.1 phonotactic constraints
		11.1.1 actual words and possible words
		11.1.2 absolute and statistical generalizations
		11.1.3 borrowings
	11.2 analyzing alternations
	11.3 alternations: what to expect
		11.3.1 local assimilation
		11.3.2 long-distance assimilation
		11.3.3 coalescence
		11.3.4 dissimilation
		11.3.5 lenition and fortition
		11.3.6 epenthesis
		11.3.7 deletion
		11.3.8 lengthening and shortening
		11.3.9 metathesis
		11.3.10 morphological interactions
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
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	references
12: What Is A Possible Language?
	12.1 introduction
		12.1.1 phonological universals
		12.1.2 why bother with formalism?
		12.1.3 some hypotheses
	12.2 distinctive features
		12.2.1 background
		12.2.2 major class and manner features
		12.2.3 laryngeal features
		12.2.4 major place distinctions
		12.2.5 subsidiary place distinctions
		12.2.6 features for vowels
	12.3 how have our hypotheses fared?
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	Go online
	references
13: Rules and Derivations in Generative Grammar
	13.1 generative grammars
	13.2 underlying representations
	13.3 writing rules
		13.3.1 SPE notation
		13.3.2 derivations
		13.3.3 rule complexity
	13.4 autosegmental representations and Feature Geometry
		13.4.1 autosegmental representations for tone
		13.4.2 autosegmental representations for other features
		13.4.3 Feature Geometry
	13.5 how have our hypotheses fared?
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	Go online
	references
14: Constraint-based Phonology
	14.1 constraints and rules in linguistic theory
	14.2 the basics of Optimality Theory
		14.2.1 Con
		14.2.2 Gen
		14.2.3 Eval
	14.3 example problem solving in OT
		14.3.1 vowel sequences in three languages
		14.3.2 nasal place assimilation
		14.3.3 Japanese /tu/
	14.4 challenges and directions for further research
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	Go online
	references
15: Syllables and Prosodic Domains
	15.1 syllables
		15.1.1 does phonology need syllables?
		15.1.2 syllables and sonority
		15.1.3 syllable structure constraints 1: onsets and codas
		15.1.4 syllable structure constraints 2: moras and syllable weight
	15.2 the prosodic hierarchy
		15.2.1 the phonological word
		15.2.2 the phonological phrase
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	references
16: Stress
	16.1 what is linguistic stress?
	16.2 cross-linguistic typology
	16.3 a feature for stress?
	16.4 metrical structure
	16.5 stress in English
		16.5.1 overview
		16.5.2 nouns
		16.5.3 verbs and adjectives
		16.5.4 words with affixes, and lexical phonology
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	references
17: Tone and Intonation
	17.1 tone
		17.1.1 tone contrasts
		17.1.2 tonal representations
		17.1.3 tone alternations: the evidence from Africa and the Americas
		17.1.4 tone alternations: the evidence from Asia
	17.2 intonation
		17.2.1 what is intonation?
		17.2.2 intonational representations
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
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18: Diachronic Change
	18.1 languages change
		18.1.1 English in the last millennium
		18.1.2 types of sound change
		18.1.3 causes and effects
	18.2 historical reconstruction
		18.2.1 Proto-Indo-European
		18.2.2 Grimm’s Law, Verner’s Law, and the Neo-grammarian hypothesis
		18.2.3 limits to the tree model
	18.3 history of English
		18.3.1 Old English
		18.3.2 Middle English
		18.3.3 Modern English
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
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19: Variation
	19.1 variation by place
		19.1.1 what is a dialect?
		19.1.2 dialects of North American English
		19.1.3 dialects of British English
		19.1.4 Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
		19.1.5 World Englishes
		19.1.6 place and identity
	19.2 other sources of variation
		19.2.1 register
		19.2.2 socioeconomic distinctions
		19.2.3 ethnicity
		19.2.4 gender, age, sexuality
		19.2.5 variation and identity
	19.3 formalizing variation
		19.3.1 traditional sociolinguistic analyses
		19.3.2 traditional phonological analyses
		19.3.3 stochastic grammars
	chapter summary
	further reading
		on regional dialects
		on other sources of variation
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	Go online
	references
20: Acquisition and Learning
	20.1 language acquisition and language learning
	20.2 child language acquisition: the data
		20.2.1 tools
		20.2.2 perception in the first year
		20.2.3 child language production
	20.3 theories of L1 acquisition
		20.3.1 innateness vs. environmental effects
		20.3.2 acquiring language-specific contrasts
	20.4 L2 learning
		20.4.1 tools
		20.4.2 L2 perception
		20.4.3 L2 production
	20.5 acquisition, learning, and linguistic theory
	chapter summary
	further reading
	review exercises
	further analysis and discussion
	further research
	Go online
	references
Index