The silvicultural basis for agroforestry systems

The SILVICULTURAL BASIS for AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS......Page 1
Preface......Page 3
About the Editors......Page 4
Contributors......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 6
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 8
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.2 PART I......Page 10
1.4 PART III......Page 11
1.5 REFERENCES......Page 12
Part 1: Understanding Plant Environment Interactions: A Basis for Silviculture in Agroforestry Systems......Page 14
Part 1: Introduction......Page 15
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 16
2.2 THE LIGHT FACTOR......Page 17
2.3 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON PLANTS......Page 19
2.4 PRIMARY PRODUCTION......Page 20
2.5 THE WATER FACTOR......Page 22
2.6 ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF WATER RELATIONS......Page 25
2.7 WATER AND LIGHT......Page 26
2.8.1 MINERAL NUTRIENTS......Page 28
2.8.1.1 Nitrogen (N)......Page 31
2.8.1.4 Calcium (Ca)......Page 32
2.8.1.6 Magnesium (Mg)......Page 33
2.8.1.7 Iron (Fe)......Page 34
2.8.1.11 Molybdenum (Mo)......Page 35
2.9 ORGANIC BIOSTIMULANTS......Page 36
2.10 PLANT PROPERTIES AND AGROFORESTRY......Page 37
2.11 REFERENCES......Page 41
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 47
3.2 IMPORTANCE OF NITROGEN IN AGRICULTURE AND NUTRITION......Page 48
3.3 SOURCES OF NITROGEN......Page 49
3.5 NITROGEN REQUIREMENTS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS......Page 50
3.7 QUANTIFICATION OF BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION......Page 52
3.8 NITROGEN FIXATION CYCLES IN AGROFORESTRY......Page 55
3.9 EFFECTS OF N2-FIXING TREES ON DURATION OF FERTILITY AND PRODUCTION OF CROPS......Page 57
3.10 LEGUMINOUS TREES USED IN AGROFORESTRY......Page 58
3.11 BASIC RESEARCH NEEDED IN N2-FIXATION IN AGROFORESTRY......Page 60
3.12 REFERENCES......Page 62
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 67
4.2 RESOURCE AVAILABILITY AND THE COMPLEXITY OF MIXED-SPECIES PLANTATIONS......Page 69
4.3.1 SEQUENTIAL MIXING: AVAILING MANMADE CATASTROPHIC INTERVENTION......Page 72
4.3.2 RESOURCE UTILIZATION......Page 74
4.4 ENHANCING STABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY: PATHOGENS AND SYMBIONTS......Page 76
4.4.1 ENHANCING STABILITY......Page 77
4.4.2 ENHANCING SUSTAINABILITY......Page 78
4.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 79
4.6 REFERENCES......Page 80
TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 84
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 85
5.2 AN APPLICATION OF CONSUMER-RESOURCE AND COMPETITION THEORY TO AGROFORESTRY GRAZING SYSTEMS......Page 86
5.2.1 CATTLE GRAZING IN A PLANTATION......Page 87
5.2.2 MODEL 1: LINEAR DENSITY DEPENDENT PLANT GROWTH IN THE DOMINANT COMPETITOR......Page 91
5.2.3 MODEL 2: NONLINEAR DENSITY DEPENDENT GROWTH WITH DENSITY DEPENDENCE HIGHEST AT LOW DENSITY......Page 94
5.2.4 MODEL 3: NONLINEAR DENSITY DEPENDENT GROWTH WITH DENSITY DEPENDENCE HIGHEST AT HIGH DENSITY......Page 95
5.2.5 REAL EXAMPLES AND SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS......Page 97
5.2.6 GRAZING IN FOREST PLANTATIONS: SUMMARY......Page 99
5.3 FOOD CHAIN THEORY AND THE RELEVANCE TO PEST CONTROL IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS......Page 101
5.3.2 SCENARIO 2: UNSUCCESSFUL DENSITY MEDIATED REDUCTION OF HERBIVORE IMPACTS ON PLANTS......Page 103
5.3.3 MITIGATION OF HERBIVORE IMPACT BY MECHANISMS OTHER THAN DENSITY REDUCTION: GENERAL CONCEPTS......Page 104
5.3.4 SCENARIO 3: SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL MITIGATION OF HERBIVORE IMPACT VIA A TRAIT MEDIATED RESPONSE—LINEAR FOOD CHAINS AND CHANGES IN FEEDING TIME......Page 106
5.3.5 SCENARIO 4: SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL MITIGATION OF HERBIVORE IMPACT VIA A TRAIT MEDIATED RESPONSE—MULTIPLE HERBIVORE RESOURCES AND HABITAT (DIET) SHIFTS......Page 107
5.3.6 REAL EXAMPLES AND PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS......Page 109
5.3.7 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE USE OF PREDATORS TO CONTROL HERBIVORE PESTS IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS......Page 110
5.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING POINTS......Page 112
5.5 REFERENCES......Page 113
Part II: Pattern and Process of Forests as Templates for Silvicultural Applications in Agroforestry Systems......Page 117
Part II: Introduction......Page 118
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 119
6.3 DORMANCY......Page 124
6.4 PATTERNS OF TEMPORAL PARTITIONING OF GROWING SPACE......Page 125
6.5 COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION......Page 126
6.6 CLIMATIC DIFFERENCES AND EFFECTS......Page 127
6.7 ROOT PHENOMENA......Page 131
6.8 RELATIONSHIP TO CHOICES OF SPECIES......Page 132
6.9 REFERENCES......Page 133
TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 135
7.2.1 EXAMPLES OF TRADITIONAL SUSTAINABLE AGROFORESTRY......Page 136
7.2.1.1 An Example from the Kayapó in Brazil......Page 137
7.2.1.2 Homegardens: Traditional Low-Scale, Low-Input Agroforestry......Page 138
7.2.2 NUTRIENT MOBILIZATION AND LOSSES IN SHIFTING AGRICULTURE......Page 139
7.2.3 MANAGED FOREST FALLOWS......Page 144
7.2.4 NUTRIENT DYNAMICS IN MORE RECENT AGROFORESTRY: ALLEY CROPPING......Page 145
7.2.5 MODIFIED TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS: TREES USED FOR SHADE OF PERENNIAL CROPS......Page 149
7.2.6 AGROFORESTRY IN SEMIARID ENVIRONMENTS......Page 150
7.2.7 THE ROLE OF ANIMALS: AGROSILVOPASTORAL SYSTEMS......Page 151
7.3 THE EFFECTS OF TREES ON SOIL FERTILITY......Page 152
7.4 NUTRIENT USE EFFICIENCY AND SPECIES CHOICE......Page 155
7.4.1 APPLICABILITY OF NUE IN SYSTEM DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT......Page 156
7.5.1 THE NEED FOR INITIAL ECONOMIC INCENTIVES TO FACILITATE SYSTEM ESTABLISHMENT......Page 158
7.8 REFERENCES......Page 159
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 165
8.2 WOODLOTS, GROVES, FOREST PATCHES, AND BLOCK PLANTINGS......Page 166
8.3 NITROGEN FIXATION IN HOUSEHOLD ORCHARD GARDENS......Page 167
8.4 NITROGEN-FIXING SHADE TREES FOR TREE PLANTATIONS......Page 169
8.5 NITROGEN-FIXING TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PASTURE IMPROVEMENT AND FODDER......Page 170
8.6 IMPROVED FALLOWS......Page 175
8.7 HEDGEROWS OF LEGUMINOUS TREES IN ALLEY CROPPING AND ALLEY FARMING......Page 176
8.8 BOUNDARY TREES: TRAIL AND ROADSIDE PLANTINGS, LIVING FENCES AND BOUNDARY MARKERS......Page 178
8.9 CONCLUSION......Page 179
8.10 REFERENCES......Page 180
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 187
9.2 SPECIES INTERACTIONS......Page 188
9.3 EVALUATION OF SPECIES INTERACTION EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY......Page 191
9.4 A DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF FOREST STAND STRUCTURE......Page 193
9.5 STAND INITIATION STAGE—ALLEY CROPPING AND TAUNGYA......Page 195
9.6 STEM EXCLUSION STAGE—TREE GARDENS......Page 198
9.7 UNDERSTORY REINITIATION STAGE—SHADE TREE-CROP COMBINATIONS......Page 200
9.8 OLD-GROWTH STAGE—HOMEGARDENS......Page 203
9.9 CONCLUSIONS......Page 204
9.9.1 IMPORTANCE OF COMPLEMENTARY YIELD AS A GOAL......Page 205
9.9.2 IMPORTANCE OF A DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH TO SYSTEM DESIGN......Page 206
9.11 REFERENCES......Page 207
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 210
10.2 RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF AGROFORESTRY TREE-MIXTURES......Page 216
10.3 SUCCESSIONAL MODELS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGROFORESTRY TREE-MIXTURES......Page 219
10.3.1 THE NURSE PHASE......Page 223
10.3.2 THE TRAINING PHASE......Page 224
10.3.3 THE TREE CROP PHASE......Page 225
10.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 226
10.5 REFERENCES......Page 227
Part III: The Silvicultural Framework for Agroforestry Systems......Page 232
Part III: Introduction......Page 233
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 234
11.2 A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO THE LANDSCAPE......Page 235
11.3 REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION......Page 237
11.4 SITE CLASSIFICATION......Page 239
11.5 ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS WITHIN AN AREA......Page 242
11.6 DYNAMIC PATTERN AND THE TIMING OF HARVESTS......Page 246
11.8 REFERENCES......Page 250
TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 254
12.1.1 CONCEPTS BEHIND SYSTEM DEFINITION......Page 255
12.1.2 THE PRIMARY FACTOR DEFINING SCALE OF MANAGEMENT: SITE PRODUCTIVITY......Page 256
12.1.3 A FRAMEWORK FOR IDENTIFYING SCALE OF STAND MANAGEMENT......Page 257
12.2.1.1 Regeneration Origin......Page 260
12.2.1.3 Stages of Stand Development......Page 262
12.2.1.4 Age-Class Distribution: Single-Cohort Single Species Stands......Page 265
12.2.1.7 Multiple-Cohort Mixtures......Page 267
12.2.1.7.1 Spacing......Page 268
12.2.1.7.3 Growth Habit......Page 269
12.4 REFERENCES......Page 270