The Senses: A Comprehensive Reference, Six-Volume Set, Volume 1-6

Cover Page......Page 1<br>Title Page......Page 3<br>ISBN 0126394822......Page 5<br>EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD......Page 6<br>Volume Editors......Page 7<br>Volume 2 Vision II......Page 10<br>Volume 3 Audition......Page 11<br>Volume 4 Olfaction & Taste......Page 12<br>Volume 5 Pain......Page 13<br>Volume 6 Somatosensation......Page 14<br>Contents......Page 8<br>Contents......Page 651<br>Contents......Page 1024<br>Contents......Page 1941<br>Contents......Page 2836<br>Contents......Page 3859<br>Contributors to All Volumes......Page 15<br>Volume 1 - Vision I......Page 4<br>Introduction to Volumes 1 and 2......Page 34<br>Conceptual Foundations......Page 36<br>The Compression of Information......Page 37<br>Seeing Objects in Space......Page 38<br>The Experimental Problem: Efficient Specification of Stimulus Variables......Page 40<br>Information Theory and Prior Probability......Page 41<br>Introduction......Page 44<br>General Constraints......Page 45<br>Optical Constraints......Page 46<br>Lenses: Multiple Protein Types and Gene Sharing......Page 47<br>Capturing Photons: The Opsin/Retinal Solution......Page 48<br>Developmental Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 50<br>Developmental Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 51<br>Functional Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 53<br>Other Solutions to Capturing Photons......Page 54<br>How Did Eyes Evolve?......Page 55<br>References......Page 56<br>Further Reading......Page 57<br>Introduction......Page 60<br>Size and Information Capacity......Page 61<br>The Ambient Light Environment and Light Adaptation......Page 62<br>Describing and Comparing Optical Structure of Avian Eyes......Page 63<br>Eye size......Page 64<br>Amphibious habits and optical design......Page 65<br>The Kiwi: Regressive Evolution of a Bird Eye......Page 66<br>Describing Visual Fields......Page 67<br>Difficulties in estimating visual fields and binocular overlap......Page 69<br>Type 1 fields......Page 70<br>The Function of Binocularity......Page 71<br>Binocularity and optic flow fields......Page 75<br>Binocular vision and nocturnality......Page 76<br>Photopigments and Photoreceptors......Page 77<br>Oil Droplets......Page 78<br>Variation in oil droplet pigmentation......Page 79<br>Variation of Receptor Spectral Sensitivities and Densities......Page 80<br>Double Cones and Avian Luminance......Page 81<br>Single Cones and Tetrachromacy......Page 82<br>References......Page 83<br>Further Reading......Page 87<br>Vision in Fish......Page 88<br>Evolutionary Origin of Visual Pigments......Page 89<br>Lamprey......Page 90<br>Holosteans......Page 91<br>Lungfish and Coelacanth......Page 92<br>Multiple Opsins......Page 93<br>Rh2 (Middle-Wave Green-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 94<br>SWS2 (Short-Wave Blue/Violet-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 98<br>SWS1 (Short-Wave Violet/Ultraviolet-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 99<br>LWS (Long- to Middle-Wave Red/Green-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 101<br>Complex Opsin Expression/Cellular Trajectories......Page 102<br>Short-Wavelength Shifts: Salmonids and the Lingcod......Page 103<br>Long-Wavelength Shifts: Yellowfin Tuna......Page 104<br>Adaptive Significance......Page 105<br>References......Page 108<br>Phototransduction in Microvillar Photoreceptors of Drosophila and Other Invertebrates......Page 112<br>Glossary......Page 113<br>Photoreceptor and Retinal Morphology......Page 115<br>Voltage-Clamped Light-Induced Current......Page 117<br>Potassium Channels......Page 120<br>Electroretinogram......Page 121<br>Strategies for Gene Discovery......Page 122<br>Rhodopsin......Page 123<br>Chromophore......Page 125<br>Invertebrate rhodopsins are bistable......Page 126<br>Arrestins terminate active metarhodopsin......Page 127<br>Rhodopsin kinase and phosphatase......Page 128<br>Arrestin phosphorylation......Page 129<br>Heterotrimeric G Protein......Page 130<br>G protein beta and gamma subunits......Page 131<br>Phospholipase C (NORPA)......Page 132<br>Measuring phospholipase C activity......Page 133<br>Light-Sensitive Channels trp and trpl......Page 134<br>Structure of TRP and TRPL......Page 135<br>Channel properties......Page 136<br>trp and trpl phenotypes......Page 137<br>Scaffolding Protein INAD......Page 138<br>Evidence for Activation by Lipid Messengers......Page 139<br>PIP2 Depletion......Page 141<br>Ca2+-Dependent Feedback and Mechanisms of Adaptation......Page 143<br>Ca2+ signals are dominated by Ca2+ influx......Page 144<br>Ca2+ buffers and homeostasis......Page 145<br>Ca2+-Dependent Negative Feedback......Page 146<br>Calmodulin......Page 148<br>Phosphoinositide Metabolism......Page 149<br>rdgB and Phosphatidylinositol Kinases......Page 150<br>Compartmentalization and Local Signaling......Page 151<br>Fast Nonlinear Response Kinetics......Page 152<br>Refractory Period......Page 153<br>Adaptation......Page 154<br>Limulus......Page 155<br>Mollusks......Page 156<br>Conclusion......Page 157<br>References......Page 158<br>Relevant Websites......Page 165<br>Central Processing of Visual Information in Insects......Page 166<br>The Closed Loop of Action and Perception......Page 167<br>Visually Induced Reflexes and Voluntary Movements: Inner-Loop and Outer-Loop Control......Page 168<br>General Organization......Page 170<br>Lamina......Page 171<br>Lobula Complex......Page 172<br>Functional Anatomical Pathways......Page 173<br>Self-motion and optic flow......Page 174<br>How does the visual system analyze directional motion?......Page 177<br>Flies as model systems for directional motion processing......Page 178<br>Lobula plate tangential cells and the processing of directional motion......Page 179<br>HS and VS cells analyze self-motion-induced optic flow......Page 181<br>Monocular and binocular integration of motion information......Page 183<br>Synaptic transmission: the VS-V1 synapse......Page 184<br>Lobula plate tangential cell network interactions......Page 185<br>Robustness of encoding self-motion parameters......Page 186<br>Gain control and motion adaptation......Page 187<br>Dendritic gain control......Page 188<br>Local adaptation phenomena......Page 189<br>Quantitative behavioral studies and electrophysiological replay experiments......Page 190<br>Open questions......Page 193<br>Chasing female flies......Page 194<br>Catching prey on the fly - aerial predators’ visual hunting strategies......Page 197<br>Discriminating small objects from the background......Page 200<br>Distance control in hovering hawkmoths......Page 202<br>Detecting looming objects in locusts......Page 204<br>Image Segmentation - The Detection of Orientated Contours......Page 208<br>Visual pigments, photoreceptors, and filters......Page 210<br>When does an animal have color vision?......Page 211<br>Neural mechanisms for color coding......Page 212<br>Adaptations to e-vector detection in the eye......Page 214<br>Two theoretical models of e-vector detection......Page 215<br>Neuronal mechanisms......Page 216<br>The Functional Role of the Ocelli......Page 217<br>Two Visual Mechanisms - One Motion Parameter......Page 218<br>Multisensory contributions to inner-loop control......Page 219<br>Multisensory contributions to outer-loop control......Page 222<br>The Relationship between Sensory Systems and Motor Systems: Strategies of Sensorimotor Transformation......Page 223<br>Data Supporting Cognitive Functions......Page 224<br>Conclusions......Page 226<br>References......Page 227<br>Further Reading......Page 237<br>What Is Color Vision?......Page 240<br>Spectral Sensitivities of Invertebrate Photoreceptors......Page 241<br>Color Vision in the Darkness......Page 242<br>Separation of Chromatic and Achromatic Vision......Page 243<br>References......Page 244<br>Visual Ecology......Page 246<br>Introduction to Visual Ecology......Page 247<br>Intensity and Duration of Light......Page 248<br>Spectral Properties of Natural Light......Page 249<br>Polarized Light in Nature......Page 250<br>The Biological Visual Environment......Page 251<br>Visual Optics......Page 252<br>Receptor Arrays and Retinas......Page 254<br>Visual Sensitivity (Brightness Adaptation)......Page 256<br>Spectral Sensitivity, Color Vision, and Ultraviolet Vision......Page 257<br>Polarization Vision......Page 263<br>Eye Movements......Page 266<br>Orientation......Page 267<br>Predation and Its Avoidance......Page 268<br>Visual Signaling......Page 270<br>References......Page 274<br>Photoreceptor Structure......Page 282<br>Protein Structure......Page 283<br>Genetic Structure......Page 284<br>Rod and Cone Specializations......Page 286<br>Spectral Tuning of Photopigments......Page 287<br>Nonrod, Noncone Opsins......Page 289<br>Evolution of Mammalian Photopigments......Page 290<br>Photopigment Expression......Page 291<br>The Mammalian Theme: Two Types of Cone Pigment......Page 292<br>Evolutionary Loss of Mammalian S-Cone Pigments......Page 293<br>Primate Cone Pigments and Color Vision......Page 294<br>Red-green color-vision defects......Page 296<br>Blue cone monochromacy......Page 297<br>Tritan color-vision defects......Page 298<br>References......Page 299<br>Relevant Website......Page 303<br>Glossary......Page 304<br>Morphology of Rods and Cones......Page 305<br>Light Response of Rods and Cones......Page 306<br>Intensity-Response Relation......Page 308<br>Kinetics of the Dim-Flash Response......Page 311<br>The a-Wave of the Electroretinogram......Page 312<br>Single-Photon Response......Page 313<br>Pigment Noise......Page 315<br>The cGMP-Gated, Light-Suppressible, Nonselective Cation Channel......Page 316<br>Phototransduction Cascade......Page 319<br>Background-Light Adaptation......Page 324<br>Bleaching Adaptation......Page 325<br>Differences between Rods and Cones......Page 326<br>Diseases......Page 327<br>Parietal-Eye Photoreceptor in Lizards and a Possible Evolutionary Linkage to Rods and Cones......Page 329<br>References......Page 330<br>Relevant Website......Page 336<br>Introduction......Page 338<br>Additional Rod Pathways......Page 343<br>How Could This Particular Synaptic Disposition Be Evolved?......Page 344<br>Inherited Photoreceptor Degeneration: How Photoreceptor Death Affects the Architecture of the Rod and Cone Pathways......Page 345<br>Further Reading......Page 346<br>Introduction......Page 348<br>The Presynaptic Complex......Page 349<br>Feedback from Horizontal Cells......Page 351<br>Morphological Types of Bipolar Cells......Page 352<br>Midget Bipolar Cells of the Primate Retina......Page 353<br>Blue-Cone Bipolar Cells......Page 355<br>Cone Contacts of Bipolar Cells......Page 356<br>Glutamate Receptor Subunits......Page 357<br>ON-Bipolar Cell Glutamate Receptors......Page 358<br>OFF-Bipolar Cell Glutamate Receptors......Page 359<br>Temporal Transfer Characteristics......Page 360<br>Spatial Transfer Characteristics......Page 362<br>Synaptic Contacts of Bipolar Cells in the Inner Plexiform Layer......Page 363<br>alpha-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Acid Receptor Subunits......Page 365<br>Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors......Page 366<br>Co-Stratification of Pre- and Postsynaptic Partners in the Inner Plexiform Layer......Page 367<br>References......Page 368<br>Morphology in Cat and Rabbit......Page 376<br>Synaptic Inputs......Page 377<br>Receptive Field......Page 378<br>Ephaptic Feedback......Page 379<br>A Spatiotemporal Bandpass Filter......Page 380<br>Contribution of Neuron Types......Page 381<br>References......Page 382<br>Relevant Website......Page 384<br>Introduction......Page 386<br>Random Properties of Bipolar Array......Page 387<br>Adaptive Properties of Bipolar Array......Page 389<br>Counter-Phased Grating Reveals Nonlinear Subunits......Page 390<br>Temporal Frequency Response of Bipolar Cells......Page 391<br>Contribution to Linear Responses......Page 392<br>References......Page 393<br>Neurochemical Diversity......Page 396<br>Feedback and Feedforward Inhibition......Page 398<br>Local Processing in Amacrine Cells......Page 399<br>References......Page 401<br>Further Reading......Page 402<br>The P, M and K Streams of the Primate Visual System: What Do They Do for Vision?......Page 404<br>Numbers, density, and resolution......Page 405<br>Connectivity: inputs and projections......Page 406<br>Linearity of spatial summation; X-Y......Page 407<br>Contrast gain......Page 408<br>Summary: The Properties of the Three Neuronal Streams......Page 409<br>Challenges to the Parallel Streams Hypothesis......Page 410<br>Anatomy......Page 411<br>The Need for Alternative Theories......Page 412<br>References......Page 413<br>Glossary......Page 418<br>Luminance and Contrast......Page 419<br>Optimal Basis Sets for Representing Natural Images......Page 420<br>More Complex Spatial Properties......Page 421<br>Temporal Statistics of Natural Images......Page 423<br>References......Page 424<br>Behavior......Page 428<br>Statistical Variations in Photon Absorption......Page 429<br>Behavioral Estimates of Absolute Sensitivity and Dark Noise......Page 430<br>Limitations to Behavioral Experiments......Page 431<br>Amplification......Page 432<br>Dark Noise......Page 434<br>Reproducibility......Page 435<br>Retinal Readout of the Rod Signals......Page 438<br>Sparseness, Convergence, and Nonlinear Processing......Page 439<br>Extraction......Page 442<br>Representation......Page 443<br>Summary......Page 445<br>References......Page 446<br>Direction-Selective Ganglion Cells......Page 448<br>Starburst Amacrine Cells......Page 450<br>Direction-Selective excitation......Page 452<br>Computations Based on Network Interactions......Page 453<br>The Role of Direction-Selective Signals Originating in the Retina......Page 454<br>References......Page 455<br>Discovery of Melanopsin......Page 458<br>Identification of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 459<br>Functional Characterization of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 461<br>Role of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells in Vision......Page 462<br>Melanopsin-Activated Phototransduction......Page 463<br>References......Page 464<br>Early Studies......Page 468<br>Anatomical Substrate......Page 469<br>Current Views of Cell Physiology......Page 470<br>Conclusions......Page 471<br>References......Page 472<br>Relevant Website......Page 473<br>Glossary......Page 474<br>Local Patterning in the Distribution of Retinal Nerve Cell Types......Page 475<br>Nearest neighbor analysis......Page 476<br>Voronoi-based analyses......Page 478<br>Autocorrelation analysis and the density recovery profile......Page 479<br>Packing factor analysis......Page 480<br>Functional Implications of Regular Retinal Mosaics......Page 481<br>Dendritic tiling and contact inhibition......Page 483<br>Regulating dendritic overlap by homotypic interactions......Page 486<br>Dendritic Coverage and Connectivity......Page 487<br>References......Page 488<br>Gap Junctions......Page 492<br>Clinical Relevance......Page 493<br>Cone-to-cone coupling......Page 494<br>Rod-to-cone coupling......Page 495<br>Horizontal Cells......Page 496<br>A-type horizontal cells and Cx50......Page 497<br>B-type horizontal cells......Page 498<br>AII Amacrine Cells/ON Cone Bipolar Cells, a Complex Heterocellular Network......Page 499<br>AII/ON cone bipolar gap junctions......Page 500<br>Physiology......Page 501<br>Alpha ganglion cells......Page 502<br>Synchronized firing......Page 503<br>References......Page 504<br>Glossary......Page 508<br>Dark rearing retards developmental segregation of ON and OFF pathways in retinal ganglion cells......Page 510<br>Molecular or genetic mechanisms mediating this activity-dependent developmental plasticity remain elusive......Page 513<br>Light deprivation alters the normal developmental sequence of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs to retinal ganglion cells......Page 514<br>Visual experience controls development of serotonergic amacrine cells in chick retina......Page 516<br>Ambient Background Light Regulates Horizontal Cell Synapses and Gap Junction Coupling between Horizontal Cells......Page 517<br>Light and Dark Conditions Modify the Morphology of Bipolar Cell Axons......Page 518<br>Light and Dark Controls Gap Junction Coupling and Receptive Field Properties of Amacrine Cells......Page 519<br>Light and Dark Adaptation Controls Receptive Field Organization of Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 520<br>Rewiring of Synaptic Connections in Outer Retina in Response to Photoreceptor Degeneration or Loss of Synaptic Signaling......Page 521<br>References......Page 522<br>Relevant Website......Page 525<br>Introduction......Page 526<br>Ganglion Cell Types......Page 527<br>Morphological Classification......Page 528<br>A Survey of Some Conserved Ganglion Cell Types......Page 529<br>Melanopsin-Expressing Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 530<br>ON Direction-Selective Cells......Page 532<br>Local Edge Detectors......Page 534<br>ON-OFF Direction-Selective Cells......Page 536<br>Alpha Cells......Page 537<br>Beta Cells......Page 540<br>Methods for Linking Retinofugal Projections to Retinal Ganglion Cell Types......Page 541<br>Lateral Geniculate Complex and Dorsal Thalamus......Page 542<br>Superior Colliculus......Page 544<br>Pretectal Region......Page 546<br>Hypothalamic Region......Page 547<br>References......Page 548<br>Further Reading......Page 554<br>Advantages of a Mobile Pupil......Page 556<br>Overview of the Pathways Controlling Pupil Diameter......Page 557<br>Iris Musculature......Page 559<br>Afferent Pathway......Page 560<br>Pretectal olivary nucleus......Page 561<br>Sympathetic Influences on the Pupillary Light Reflex......Page 563<br>Afferent Influences on the Pupillary Near Response......Page 564<br>Additional Cortical Influences on Pupillary Responses......Page 565<br>Influence of Alertness on Pupillary Behavior......Page 566<br>Ascending Neuromodulatory Systems......Page 567<br>Dysfunctions in the Light Reflex Pathway......Page 568<br>References......Page 569<br>Further Reading......Page 571<br>The Hypothalamic Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 572<br>Molecular Components of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Circadian Oscillator......Page 573<br>Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons Express a Circadian Rhythm in Neural Activity......Page 575<br>A Retinohypothalamic Tract Innervates the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 576<br>Photic Entrainment of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 577<br>Parametric entrainment......Page 578<br>Entrainment in nature......Page 579<br>Entrainment Confers Clock-Like Properties to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 580<br>Serotonergic Modulation of Photic Input to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 581<br>5-HT1B Receptor-Mediated Inhibition of Retinohypothalamic Tract Input to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 582<br>Anatomical Organization of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 583<br>Afferent and Efferent Connections......Page 584<br>Summary......Page 585<br>References......Page 586<br>Introduction......Page 592<br>Properties of T-Type Ca2+ Channels......Page 593<br>Properties of Burst and Tonic Firing......Page 595<br>Circuit Properties......Page 596<br>Functional Features......Page 597<br>The cat lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 599<br>Lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 600<br>Drivers and Modulators......Page 601<br>Layer 5 Corticothalamic Inputs as Drivers......Page 604<br>Role of Higher-Order Thalamic Relays in Corticocortical Processing......Page 606<br>Overview......Page 607<br>Conclusions......Page 608<br>References......Page 609<br>Further Reading......Page 610<br>Glossary......Page 612<br>Functional Organization of Area V1: Anatomical Modules and Functional Maps......Page 613<br>Hue Maps......Page 615<br>Interrelationships Among V1 Functional Maps......Page 617<br>Color, Hue, and Luminance-Change Maps......Page 618<br>Contour Maps......Page 619<br>V4 Modular Cortical Connections......Page 620<br>MT Single-Unit Mapping......Page 623<br>Inferotemporal Areas......Page 624<br>Inferotemporal Functional Modules......Page 625<br>References......Page 626<br>Further Reading......Page 628<br>Occipital Visual Areas......Page 630<br>Primary Visual Cortex......Page 631<br>V4/V8......Page 633<br>V5 (Human MT+)......Page 634<br>V3A/V3B......Page 635<br>Ventral Stream Areas......Page 636<br>Lateral Occipital Complex......Page 637<br>Fusiform Face Area......Page 638<br>Dorsal Stream Areas......Page 639<br>Parieto-Occipital Cortex/V6......Page 640<br>Superior Parietal Lobule and Inferior Parietal Lobule......Page 641<br>References......Page 642<br>Volume 2 - Vision II......Page 650<br>Temporal Coherence: A Versatile Code for the Definition of Relations......Page 653<br>Synchrony as Tag of Relatedness......Page 654<br>The Role of Oscillations in Adjusting Spike Timing......Page 655<br>Feature Specific Binding by Gamma Phase-Dependent Spike Timing in Primary Visual Cortex......Page 656<br>Mechanisms of Read-Out......Page 657<br>Synchrony and Feature Binding......Page 658<br>Preattentive versus Attention-Dependent Grouping......Page 659<br>Further Reading......Page 660<br>Object Vision Pathway......Page 663<br>Effects of Inferior Temporal Damage on Object Recognition......Page 665<br>Stimulus Selectivity of Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex......Page 668<br>Invariance Properties of Inferior Temporal Neurons (Invariance With Respect to Position, Orientation and Size)......Page 670<br>Columnar Organization of the Inferior Temporal Cortex......Page 671<br>Plasticity of the Stimulus Selectivity of Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex......Page 672<br>Coding Schemes for Object Representation......Page 674<br>Future Perspectives and Concluding Remarks......Page 676<br>References......Page 677<br>Glossary......Page 681<br>Why are Luminance and Contrast Sensitivities Important?......Page 682<br>Spatiotemporal Selectivity: The Two-Scales Design......Page 683<br>Contrast......Page 684<br>Single units......Page 685<br>Functional magnetic resonance imaging......Page 686<br>Lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 687<br>Contrast adaptation in parallel visual streams......Page 688<br>Contrast......Page 689<br>Cellular basis of the temporal contrast sensitivity function......Page 690<br>Some Clinical Implications......Page 691<br>References......Page 692<br>Relevant Website......Page 695<br>Influence of Contrast on Perceived Brightness and Lightness......Page 697<br>Neural Mechanisms of Brightness/Lightness Perception......Page 699<br>Perceptual Filling-In......Page 700<br>Neural Mechanisms of Filling-In......Page 701<br>References......Page 703<br>Further Reading......Page 704<br>Glossary......Page 705<br>Introduction......Page 706<br>Light Intensity......Page 707<br>Light Spectrum......Page 708<br>Sources of Visual Noise......Page 709<br>A Trade-Off between Resolution and Sensitivity......Page 710<br>The Eyes of Arthropods and Vertebrates......Page 711<br>Vision and Visual Behavior in Nocturnal Arthropods......Page 712<br>Spider camera eyes......Page 713<br>Insect compound eyes......Page 715<br>Signal transduction in nocturnal arthropod photoreceptors......Page 716<br>Spatial and temporal summation......Page 717<br>Visual Behavior in Nocturnal Arthropods......Page 719<br>Nocturnal navigation and homing......Page 720<br>Nocturnal color vision......Page 722<br>Vision and Visual Behavior in Nocturnal Birds and Primates......Page 723<br>Optical Adaptations for Increased Sensitivity......Page 724<br>Neural Adaptations for Increased Sensitivity......Page 726<br>Vision versus other senses at night......Page 729<br>Visual performance in dim light......Page 730<br>Visually guided prey capture, locomotion, and navigation......Page 732<br>References......Page 734<br>Glossary......Page 739<br>Univariance and Trichromacy......Page 740<br>Color Matching Functions......Page 741<br>Dichromacy and Monochromacy......Page 742<br>Historical Overview......Page 743<br>From Cone Spectral Sensitivities to Color Matching Functions......Page 744<br>Rod Spectral Sensitivity Measurements......Page 745<br>Photopic Luminous Efficiency......Page 746<br>Other Factors that Influence Spectral Sensitivity......Page 747<br>Macular Pigment......Page 748<br>References......Page 749<br>Relevant Website......Page 752<br>Glossary......Page 753<br>Introduction......Page 754<br>Psychophysical Color Mechanisms......Page 755<br>Cardinal Mechanisms......Page 757<br>R and G Mechanisms......Page 758<br>B and Y Mechanisms......Page 760<br>I and D Mechanisms......Page 762<br>Higher-Order Mechanisms......Page 763<br>References......Page 766<br>The Color Signal and Spectral Sampling......Page 771<br>Related Colors......Page 772<br>Illuminant and Viewing Media......Page 774<br>Relational Color Constancy......Page 775<br>Sensory and Perceptual Cues......Page 776<br>Spatial Ratios of Cone Excitations......Page 777<br>Achromatic Adjustment......Page 778<br>Role of Task and Stimulus......Page 779<br>Processing in Retina and Lateral Geniculate Nucleus......Page 780<br>Inherited Color-Vision Deficiency......Page 781<br>References......Page 782<br>Introduction......Page 785<br>Implementations......Page 786<br>Research on Motion......Page 787<br>The Reichardt Detector......Page 788<br>Reverse-Phi......Page 789<br>Pattern dependence......Page 790<br>Facilitation and suppression......Page 791<br>Reverse-phi......Page 792<br>Shunting inhibition......Page 793<br>The Motion Energy Model......Page 795<br>Physiological Evidence......Page 796<br>Input from the lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 797<br>Linear summation......Page 799<br>Motion opponency......Page 800<br>Space-Time Gradients......Page 801<br>Physiological Evidence......Page 802<br>Conclusion......Page 803<br>References......Page 804<br>Introduction......Page 809<br>Simple Cells and Linear Motion Mechanisms......Page 810<br>Nonlinear Motion Mechanisms......Page 812<br>Complex Cells and Motion Energy......Page 813<br>Circuitry Underlying Local Motion Processing......Page 814<br>The Spatial Scale of Local Motion Operations......Page 815<br>Extrastriate Local Motion Processing......Page 816<br>Anatomy and Connections......Page 817<br>Physiological Properties and Functional Organization......Page 818<br>Motion Integration: The Aperture Problem......Page 819<br>The Problem with Integration: Segmentation Is Needed Too......Page 821<br>The Effect of Contrast......Page 822<br>Relating MT to Perception......Page 823<br>Adaptation......Page 824<br>Attention and Memory......Page 825<br>Human MT......Page 826<br>What Is Optic Flow?......Page 827<br>Area Medial Superior Temporal......Page 828<br>Extraretinal Inputs......Page 829<br>Other Areas with Optic Flow Responses......Page 831<br>Higher Motion Areas in Cat Visual Cortex......Page 832<br>References......Page 833<br>Glossary......Page 841<br>Motion Noise......Page 844<br>The Aperture Problem......Page 845<br>Receptive Fields for Measuring Motion......Page 846<br>A Note on Terminology......Page 847<br>Tiling: The Simplest Model......Page 848<br>Tiling and Motion Noise......Page 849<br>Plaids......Page 850<br>Plaid Physiology......Page 851<br>Integrationist Models......Page 852<br>The Intersection of Constraints, or Fourier-Plane, Model......Page 854<br>Challenges to Integrationist Models......Page 856<br>Intersection of Constraints, Vector Average, or Feature Tracking?......Page 857<br>Bar-Field Physiology......Page 858<br>Physiological Evidence for Early 2D Motion Signals......Page 860<br>Theoretical Considerations: Redundancy Reduction......Page 863<br>Selectionist Models......Page 864<br>Future Challenges......Page 865<br>Final Thoughts......Page 866<br>References......Page 867<br>Relevant Websites......Page 870<br>Glossary......Page 871<br>Translational Component......Page 872<br>Combined Translation and Rotation......Page 873<br>Perception of Translational Heading......Page 874<br>Retinal Flow Theories......Page 875<br>Simulated Rotation......Page 876<br>The Path of Self-Motion......Page 877<br>The Optic Flow Illusion......Page 878<br>Neural Level......Page 879<br>References......Page 880<br>Glossary......Page 883<br>References......Page 888<br>The Computation of Transparency......Page 891<br>Anchoring Perceived Transmittance......Page 894<br>Scission and the Perception of Lightness......Page 895<br>References......Page 896<br>Glossary......Page 897<br>Orders of Depth......Page 899<br>Human Perception of Three-Dimensional Shape......Page 901<br>Monkey Perception of Three-Dimensional Structure......Page 902<br>Area MT/V5......Page 903<br>Beyond MT/V5......Page 904<br>Human MT/V5+......Page 905<br>V3A and parietal regions......Page 908<br>MT/V5 and satellites......Page 909<br>Other cortical regions......Page 911<br>Higher-order disparity selectivity in TEs, part of the inferotemporal complex......Page 914<br>Exquisite coding of three-dimensional shape from disparity by TEs neurons......Page 917<br>The invariance of three-dimensional shape selectivity in TEs......Page 918<br>Selectivity of caudal intraparietal neurons for first-order disparity......Page 919<br>Single-Cell Studies......Page 920<br>Conclusions......Page 921<br>References......Page 922<br>Relevant Websites......Page 926<br>The Binding Problem and Limits on Object Recognition......Page 927<br>Real Time Methods......Page 928<br>Feature Guidance......Page 929<br>Biased Competition......Page 930<br>Terminating Unsuccessful Searches......Page 931<br>References......Page 932<br>Glossary......Page 933<br>Surface-Based Attentional Selection......Page 934<br>Neural Basis of Surface-Based Attention......Page 936<br>Neural Basis of Competitive Interactions......Page 937<br>Neural Integration of Competition......Page 938<br>Neural Control Signals (Bias Inducers)......Page 939<br>References......Page 940<br>Introduction: Active Vision - Saccadic Eye Movements and Visual Perception......Page 943<br>Visual Representations and the Guidance of Saccadic Eye Movements......Page 944<br>Psychophysical Links between Covert Spatial Attention and Saccade Preparation......Page 945<br>Attention Deficits Following Brain Damage......Page 946<br>Driving Attention......Page 947<br>References......Page 948<br>Stimulus and Task-Related Factors in Early Vision......Page 951<br>Behavioral Salience in Higher-Order Attention-Related Areas......Page 953<br>Further Reading......Page 954<br>Glossary......Page 955<br>Introduction......Page 956<br>Time Course of Perceptual Learning......Page 958<br>Specificity of Perceptual Learning......Page 959<br>Perceptual Learning and Contextual Interaction......Page 960<br>Perceptual Learning and Top-Down Influences......Page 962<br>Implications from Psychophysical Studies......Page 963<br>Changes in Early Sensory Cortex Associated with Perceptual Learning......Page 964<br>Changes in cortical maps associated with discrimination training......Page 965<br>Changes in response properties of neurons associated with discrimination training......Page 966<br>Changes in neuronal responsiveness associated with discrimination and detection training......Page 969<br>Section Summary......Page 970<br>Theories and Models about Perceptual Learning......Page 972<br>Cellular and Molecular Basis......Page 973<br>Concluding Remarks......Page 974<br>References......Page 975<br>Face Recognition......Page 981<br>Introduction......Page 982<br>Configural Processing......Page 983<br>A whole face is more than the sum of its parts......Page 984<br>Spacing effects......Page 985<br>Facelike processing of body stimuli......Page 986<br>General expertise......Page 987<br>Neural Basis of Face Recognition......Page 988<br>Event-Related Potentials......Page 989<br>Intracranial Recording of Neural Responses......Page 990<br>The nature of the face representation in face-selective regions......Page 991<br>Two other face-selective regions: occipital face area and superior temporal sulcus......Page 992<br>Neuropsychological Deficits of Face Recognition......Page 993<br>Acquired Prosopagnosia......Page 994<br>Conditions associated with acquired prosopagnosia......Page 995<br>Lesion location in acquired prosopagnosia......Page 996<br>Developmental Prosopagnosia......Page 997<br>Conditions associated with developmental prosopagnosia......Page 998<br>Face-Specificity in Prosopagnosia......Page 999<br>Face Processing in Newborns......Page 1000<br>Critical Period in the Early Months of Life......Page 1002<br>Conclusion......Page 1003<br>References......Page 1004<br>Relevant Website......Page 1009<br>Glossary......Page 1011<br>Rotational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex: Basic Properties and Frequency Dependence......Page 1012<br>Rotational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex: Three-Neuron-Arc and Neural Integrator......Page 1014<br>Translational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex: Basic Properties......Page 1015<br>Behavioral Observations......Page 1017<br>Neural Signatures of Plasticity: Identifying the Sites for Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Learning?......Page 1019<br>References......Page 1020<br>Volume 3 - Audition......Page 1023<br>Introduction to Volume 3......Page 1027<br>Glossary......Page 1029<br>General Considerations......Page 1030<br>The Concepts of Morphological Homology and Molecular Homology......Page 1031<br>What Is a Ciliated Mechanoreceptor Cell?......Page 1032<br>Phylogeny, Homology, and Homoplasy: The Historical Background of the Animal Groups......Page 1033<br>Ciliated Mechanosensory Cells of Vertebrates and Their Relatives......Page 1034<br>Mechanoreceptors in tunicate sea squirts......Page 1035<br>The typical vertebrate hair cell......Page 1036<br>The Origin and History of Vestibular Systems in Craniates......Page 1038<br>The structure and diversity of the vestibular organ......Page 1039<br>The Origin and Phylogeny of a Dedicated Auditory Epithelium......Page 1040<br>The hearing organs of amphibians (frogs and toads and their relatives)......Page 1041<br>The hearing organs of lepidosaurs (lizards and snakes)......Page 1042<br>The hearing organs of archosaur groups (dinosaurs, crocodilians, birds)......Page 1043<br>The hearing organs of mammals......Page 1044<br>Ciliated Mechanoreceptors of Nonchordate Animals......Page 1045<br>Cnidarian Hair Cells......Page 1046<br>Mechanotransduction in Caenorhabditis elegans......Page 1047<br>Ciliated Mechanoreceptors in Insects......Page 1048<br>Mollusk Hair Cells......Page 1051<br>Molecular Evolution of Mechanoreceptors......Page 1053<br>Extrinsic factors regulating mechanoreceptor development......Page 1054<br>The role of transcription factors in mechanoreceptor development......Page 1055<br>Conclusion......Page 1057<br>References......Page 1058<br>Relevant Website......Page 1062<br>Glossary......Page 1063<br>Introduction......Page 1064<br>Tympanal Ears......Page 1065<br>Evolutionary Origins of Tympanal Ears......Page 1067<br>Lepidoptera......Page 1068<br>Orthoptera......Page 1070<br>Hemiptera (Homoptera+Heteroptera)......Page 1073<br>Diptera......Page 1074<br>Nearfield Sound Receptors......Page 1075<br>Summary and Future Considerations......Page 1076<br>References......Page 1079<br>Introduction......Page 1083<br>Binaural Spectral-Difference Cue......Page 1084<br>Pinna Localization Cues......Page 1085<br>Ultrasonic Communication......Page 1086<br>References......Page 1087<br>Relevant Website......Page 1088<br>Glossary......Page 1089<br>Otolith Organs......Page 1090<br>Middle Ears......Page 1091<br>Hearing Performance in the Vertebrate Classes......Page 1093<br>Relations Between Hearing Structure and the Medium......Page 1095<br>Allometry......Page 1096<br>Localization......Page 1097<br>Management of the Acoustic Environment......Page 1099<br>References......Page 1100<br>Glossary......Page 1103<br>The Origin of Mechanosensation Lies in Untethered, Membrane-Tension-Gated Channels......Page 1104<br>The transient receptor potential superfamily......Page 1107<br>Ancestry of Specialized Mechanosensory Cells......Page 1117<br>Known or suspected mechanosensory cells of multicellular animals......Page 1118<br>Mechanosensory cells in Caenorhabditis elegans: connecting degenerin/epithelial sodium channels channels to the cuticle?......Page 1120<br>Genetics of mechanotransduction in Drosophila melanogaster: tethering a kinocilium to the cuticle......Page 1121<br>Mechanosensory Cells in Vertebrates......Page 1122<br>The Zebrafish NompC (TRPN-1): Is There a Divergent Base for Mechanosensory Transduction in the Apparently Structurally Conserved Vertebrate Hair Cells?......Page 1123<br>Active Processes in Hair Cells......Page 1124<br>Development of Mechanoreceptor Cells: Molecular Transformation of an Epidermal Cell into a Mechanoreceptor......Page 1127<br>Conclusions......Page 1128<br>References......Page 1129<br>Relevant Website......Page 1133<br>Glossary......Page 1135<br>Introduction......Page 1136<br>Basic Anatomy of Auditory Epithelia and the Hair Cells......Page 1137<br>Hair cells......Page 1140<br>The Mechanotransduction Apparatus......Page 1141<br>The Basolateral Membrane......Page 1149<br>The Outer Hair Cell Lateral Wall......Page 1153<br>The Cytoplasm......Page 1155<br>Supporting Cells......Page 1156<br>References......Page 1159<br>Glossary......Page 1167<br>Introduction......Page 1168<br>USH1C......Page 1169<br>Mutations......Page 1170<br>Mutations......Page 1171<br>Structure, Expression, and Function......Page 1172<br>Structure, Expression, and Function......Page 1173<br>Outlook for the Future......Page 1174<br>References......Page 1175<br>Introduction......Page 1177<br>A Model of Cochlear K+ Homeostasis......Page 1178<br>Genetic Evidence in Support of Cochlear K+ Recycling......Page 1180<br>References......Page 1181<br>Further Reading......Page 1183<br>Pathophysiology......Page 1185<br>Outline placeholder......Page 0<br>Natural History......Page 1187<br>Treatment......Page 1188<br>Steroids......Page 1189<br>References......Page 1190<br>Mechano-Acoustical Transformations......Page 1193<br>Introduction......Page 1194<br>Newton’s Second Law of Motion......Page 1195<br>The Input and Output Variables......Page 1196<br>Concha and Ear-Canal Resonance......Page 1197<br>Middle Ear......Page 1198<br>Tympanic Membrane Shape and Internal Structure......Page 1200<br>Tympanic Membrane Biomechanics......Page 1201<br>Middle-Ear Imaging......Page 1203<br>Malleus-Incus Complex......Page 1204<br>Stapes......Page 1206<br>Middle-Ear Muscles......Page 1207<br>Vestibular Fluid Pressure......Page 1208<br>Partition Resonance......Page 1210<br>Fluid......Page 1211<br>One-dimensional approximation......Page 1212<br>Two-dimensional approximation......Page 1213<br>Solution Methods......Page 1214<br>Multiscale Organ of Corti Model......Page 1216<br>Outer Hair Cell Motility and the Push-Pull Motion of the Basiliar Membrane......Page 1217<br>Time Delay versus ldquoFeedforward",5,1,2,0,0pc,0pc,0pc,0pc......Page 1220<br>Inner Hair Cell Excitation......Page 1221<br>Cell Motility versus Stereociliary Forces......Page 1223<br>Stiffness Change Along the Cochlea......Page 1224<br>Acknowledgment......Page 1225<br>References......Page 1226<br>Glossary......Page 1231<br>References......Page 1236<br>Introduction......Page 1239<br>Major Functions......Page 1240<br>Mechanoreception in Arthropod Type I Mechanosensilla......Page 1241<br>Ciliary Functions in Type 1 Chordotonal Sensilla......Page 1242<br>References......Page 1243<br>Introduction......Page 1245<br>Interaural Acoustic Coupling......Page 1246<br>Anurans......Page 1247<br>Avians......Page 1249<br>Concluding Remarks......Page 1250<br>References......Page 1251<br>Further Reading......Page 1252<br>Glossary......Page 1253<br>The Evolution of Vertebrate Hearing in Water......Page 1255<br>Hearing Capabilities of Fishes......Page 1256<br>Marine Mammal Auditory Systems......Page 1258<br>Marine Mammal Audiometrics......Page 1260<br>References......Page 1263<br>Further Reading......Page 1264<br>Introduction......Page 1265<br>A Brief History of Otoacoustic Emission......Page 1266<br>Spontaneous Acoustic Emission: A Response Without a Stimulus......Page 1269<br>Emissions Evoked by Low-Level Transients and Single-Frequency Tones......Page 1270<br>Emissions Evoked by Tone Pairs......Page 1271<br>Models of Otoacoustic Emission......Page 1272<br>Emitted Sounds or a Change in the Cochlear Input Impedance?......Page 1275<br>Positive Feedback in the Mechanics of the Cochlea......Page 1276<br>Quasilinearity at Low Stimulus Levels......Page 1277<br>Nonlinear Behavior at Moderate Sound Levels......Page 1278<br>Nonlinear Emissions at Relatively High Stimulus Levels......Page 1281<br>Cellular Mechanisms of Otoacoustic Emission Generation......Page 1282<br>Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 1283<br>References......Page 1284<br>Further Reading......Page 1287<br>Introduction......Page 1291<br>Biophysics of Hair Cell Transduction......Page 1292<br>Tip Links......Page 1295<br>Adaptation......Page 1297<br>The Mechanism of Slow Adaptation......Page 1298<br>The Mechanism of Fast Adaptation......Page 1301<br>Active Hair Bundle Movements......Page 1303<br>Slow Adaptation and Myosin-Ic......Page 1306<br>Other Hair Bundle Myosins......Page 1308<br>Tip Links......Page 1310<br>The Transduction Channel......Page 1313<br>Conclusions......Page 1316<br>References......Page 1317<br>Essential Characteristics of Mechanical Feedback Amplification......Page 1321<br>Signatures of Mechanical Feedback Amplification in Insect Ears......Page 1322<br>Genetic Dissection of Mechanical Feedback Amplification......Page 1323<br>Candidate Sensors and Motors of the Feedback Loop......Page 1324<br>Parallel Evolution of Mechanical Feedback Amplification in Vertebrates and Invertebrates......Page 1325<br>References......Page 1326<br>Relevant Websites......Page 1327<br>Glossary......Page 1329<br>Associated Decreased Sound Tolerance......Page 1331<br>Epidemiology of Tinnitus......Page 1332<br>Peripheral Processes Involved in Tinnitus......Page 1333<br>Evaluation of the Individual with Tinnitus......Page 1334<br>References......Page 1335<br>Further Reading......Page 1336<br>Introduction: Outer Hair Cell Electromotility and Prestin......Page 1337<br>Molecular Structure of Prestin......Page 1338<br>Functional Properties of Prestin......Page 1339<br>Voltage Dependence......Page 1340<br>Biophysical Model......Page 1341<br>Molecular Mechanisms......Page 1342<br>Future Directions......Page 1343<br>References......Page 1344<br>Further Reading......Page 1345<br>Cochlear Receptor Potentials......Page 1347<br>Introduction......Page 1348<br>A History of Sensory Transduction......Page 1349<br>Compound Potentials Recorded from the Cochlea......Page 1350<br>Davis’ Theory of Sensory Transduction......Page 1351<br>IHC Receptor Potentials......Page 1352<br>Factors That Shape the Inner Hair Cell Receptor Potential......Page 1353<br>Voltage-dependent basolateral conductances......Page 1354<br>Inner Hair Cell receptor potential transfer function and operating point depend on cochlear location......Page 1355<br>Transfer Functions of Afferent Synapses......Page 1357<br>Phase Relationships between Inner Hair Cell and Neural Excitation......Page 1360<br>Inner Hair Cell membrane time constant: significance for phase-locking......Page 1361<br>The problem of preserving high temporal resolution in synaptic transmission......Page 1363<br>The problem with owls......Page 1364<br>Outer Hair Cell Receptor Potentials......Page 1365<br>Phase and Magnitude of Outer Hair Cell and Inner Hair Cell Receptor Potentials as Indicators of Electromechanical Feedback......Page 1366<br>The Phase and Magnitude of Outer Hair Cell Receptor Potential and the Positive Feedback Model......Page 1367<br>The Phase of Outer Hair Cell Excitation: A Balance between the Tectorial Membranes Radial Stiffness and Rotational Stiffness of Outer Hair Cell Stereocilia......Page 1368<br>Hair Cell Isoresponse Tuning Curves: Comparison with Mechanical and Neural Tuning Curves......Page 1369<br>Factors Influencing Amplification along the Length of the Basilar Membrane......Page 1370<br>Control of the Outer Hair Cell Transducer-Operating Point......Page 1372<br>Displacement of the Outer Hair Cell Transducer-Operating Point and Gain Optimization......Page 1373<br>Temporary Threshold Shift in Cochlear Sensitivity and Changes in the Operating Point of the Outer Hair Cell Transducer......Page 1376<br>Exploiting Compound Potentials to Understand Cochlear Function and Dysfunction......Page 1378<br>The Nature of the Cochlear Amplifier......Page 1379<br>References......Page 1380<br>Further Reading......Page 1386<br>Glossary......Page 1387<br>Further Reading......Page 1392<br>Glossary......Page 1393<br>Afferent Neurons of Acousticolateralis Sensory Systems......Page 1394<br>Spiral Ganglion Neurons......Page 1395<br>Auditory Nerve Fibers......Page 1396<br>Innervation Patterns and the Function of Auditory Organs......Page 1399<br>The Synaptic Body and Synaptic Vesicle Pools......Page 1400<br>Calcium Buffering in Hair Cells......Page 1403<br>The Synaptic Body (Ribbon) and Its Vesicles......Page 1405<br>Molecular Specializations of Ribbon Synapses......Page 1406<br>Anatomy of the Synaptic Body: Heterogeneity of Structure......Page 1408<br>Vesicle Mobility......Page 1409<br>Transmitter Release and Clearance......Page 1410<br>Relating Anatomical and Functional Vesicle Pools......Page 1411<br>Physiology of the Hair Cell Afferent Synapse......Page 1412<br>Encoding of Phase......Page 1413<br>Baseline and Evoked Synaptic Activity......Page 1414<br>Synaptic frequency selectivity......Page 1416<br>Adaptation of the Auditory Nerve Response......Page 1417<br>The Role of the Synaptic Body in Auditory Nerve Fiber Spike Timing......Page 1418<br>References......Page 1419<br>Further Reading......Page 1423<br>Testing for Auditory Neuropathy......Page 1425<br>Clinical Features of Auditory Neuropathy......Page 1426<br>Exceptions to the Criteria for Defining Auditory Neuropathy......Page 1428<br>Pathophysiology of Auditory Neuropathy......Page 1429<br>Psychoacoustic Deficits of Auditory Neuropathy......Page 1430<br>Inner Hair Cell Channelopathy-Knockout of the Inner Hair Cell CaV1.3......Page 1434<br>Auditory Nerve Fiber Myelin Disorder......Page 1436<br>References......Page 1439<br>Efferent System......Page 1441<br>Olivocochlear Anatomy......Page 1442<br>Medial olivocochlear anatomy......Page 1443<br>Lateral olivocochlear anatomy......Page 1444<br>Lateral olivocochlear neurotransmitters......Page 1445<br>Cortico-Cochlear Pathways......Page 1447<br>Effects on cochlear electrical responses and otoacoustic emissions......Page 1449<br>Mechanisms of inhibition of OHC activity......Page 1450<br>Fast and slow effects of olivocochlear activation......Page 1451<br>Medial olivocochlear effects on cochlear mechanics......Page 1452<br>Efferent modulation by electrical activation of the auditory cortex......Page 1453<br>Acoustic efferent effects in experimental animals......Page 1454<br>Section of olivocochlear efferents in animals......Page 1456<br>Vestibular-nerve section in humans......Page 1457<br>alpha9-Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor knockout mice......Page 1458<br>Gentamicin......Page 1459<br>Neurochemistry of lateral olivocochlear dopaminergic transmission......Page 1460<br>Antimasking of Auditory Stimuli in Noise......Page 1461<br>Antimasking of tones and speech in humans......Page 1462<br>Medial olivocochlear protection to loud sounds......Page 1463<br>Modulation of Sensory Input During Sleep......Page 1464<br>Some Clinical Findings......Page 1465<br>References......Page 1467<br>Further Reading......Page 1473<br>Overview of Treatment of Hearing Loss......Page 1475<br>Introduction......Page 1476<br>Tympanoplasty......Page 1478<br>Perforation of the tympanic membrane......Page 1479<br>Bone-anchored hearing aid......Page 1480<br>Pharmacological treatments......Page 1481<br>Sudden sensorineural hearing loss......Page 1482<br>Ototoxicity and sound trauma......Page 1483<br>Cochlear Implants......Page 1484<br>Treatment for Acoustic Neuromas......Page 1485<br>Completely-in-the-canal......Page 1486<br>Mini-behind-the-ear......Page 1487<br>Microphone technology......Page 1488<br>Directional microphone hearing aid technology......Page 1489<br>Digital signal processing......Page 1490<br>Assistive Listening Devices......Page 1491<br>References......Page 1492<br>Relevant Websites......Page 1495<br>Cochlear Implants......Page 1497<br>Temporal Coding......Page 1498<br>Speech Recognition......Page 1499<br>Cochlear Implants as a Tool for Neuroscience......Page 1500<br>References......Page 1501<br>Further Reading......Page 1502<br>Background......Page 1503<br>Signal-to-Noise Ratio Loss......Page 1504<br>Early Hearing Aids......Page 1505<br>Modern Digital Hearing Aids - Limitations......Page 1506<br>Modern Digital Hearing Aids - Improvements......Page 1507<br>Satisfaction and Technology......Page 1508<br>Over-the-Counter Hearing Aids......Page 1509<br>References......Page 1510<br>Regeneration in the Avian Ear......Page 1513<br>Regulation of Supporting Cell Proliferation......Page 1514<br>Regeneration in the Absence of Cell Proliferation......Page 1515<br>References......Page 1516<br>Further Reading......Page 1517<br>Introduction......Page 1519<br>Viral Vectors: An Overview......Page 1520<br>Intracochlear Viral Gene Delivery......Page 1521<br>Cochlear Gene Therapy: Safety Considerations......Page 1523<br>Future Implications......Page 1524<br>References......Page 1525<br>Glossary......Page 1527<br>Sensory Receptors......Page 1528<br>Overview of General Auditory Pathway for All Vertebrates......Page 1529<br>Functional Organization in Fishes......Page 1530<br>The Auditory Periphery of Fishes......Page 1531<br>The Auditory Medulla in Fishes......Page 1533<br>The Auditory Midbrain of Fishes......Page 1534<br>Functional Organization in Lissamphibians......Page 1536<br>The Auditory Periphery of Lissamphibians......Page 1537<br>The Auditory Medulla of Amphibians......Page 1538<br>The Auditory Forebrain of Anurans......Page 1539<br>The Auditory Periphery of Reptilia......Page 1540<br>The Auditory Medulla of Reptilia......Page 1541<br>The Auditory Forebrain of Reptilia......Page 1542<br>Functional Organization in Mammals......Page 1543<br>The Auditory Medulla of Mammals......Page 1544<br>The Auditory Forebrain of Mammals......Page 1546<br>References......Page 1547<br>Further Reading......Page 1551<br>Invertebrate Auditory Pathways......Page 1553<br>General Introduction......Page 1554<br>Distribution and Design of Ears......Page 1555<br>Common features of receptor projections......Page 1556<br>Functional organization of central afferent projections......Page 1557<br>Temporal Coding......Page 1561<br>Lepidoptera......Page 1562<br>Gryllids......Page 1563<br>Noctuid Moths......Page 1564<br>Noctuid Moths......Page 1565<br>Mantises......Page 1566<br>Tettigoniids......Page 1567<br>Gryllids......Page 1569<br>Pattern Recognition in Grasshoppers......Page 1573<br>Gryllids......Page 1574<br>Tettigoniids......Page 1576<br>Flies......Page 1577<br>What Is the Neural Code for Sound Direction?......Page 1578<br>Contralateral Inhibition in Gryllids......Page 1579<br>Contralateral Inhibition in Acridids......Page 1581<br>Ventilation and Flight......Page 1582<br>Crickets......Page 1583<br>References......Page 1585<br>Further Reading......Page 1591<br>Glossary......Page 1593<br>Introduction......Page 1594<br>Firing Patterns......Page 1595<br>The Kv Family......Page 1597<br>The Kv3 family......Page 1598<br>Channel Specialization and Biophysical Characterization of the Channels in the Vertebrate Auditory Cental Nervous System......Page 1599<br>The low voltage-activated potassium conductance......Page 1600<br>The high voltage-activated potassium conductance......Page 1601<br>Octopus Cells......Page 1602<br>Dorsal Cochlear Nuclear Pyramidal Cells......Page 1603<br>Medial Superior Olive......Page 1604<br>Inferior colliculus......Page 1605<br>The Role of Low-Voltage-Activated K+ Channels in Temporal Integration......Page 1606<br>Tonotopic Channel Expression Patterns, and Relationship to Integrative Roles......Page 1608<br>References......Page 1609<br>Glossary......Page 1615<br>Synaptic Transmission......Page 1616<br>Overview of the Types and Morphology of Synapses in Auditory Pathways......Page 1617<br>Bushy Cells and the Endbulbs of Held......Page 1618<br>Medial Nucleus of the Trapezoid Body......Page 1619<br>Transmission at Giant Synapses......Page 1620<br>Synaptic Strength at Auditory Relays......Page 1621<br>Synaptic Depression......Page 1622<br>Alpha-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Acid Receptors and K+ Channels......Page 1623<br>Endbulbs versus Calyces versus Hair Cells......Page 1624<br>Inhibition......Page 1625<br>Presynaptic Modulation......Page 1626<br>References......Page 1627<br>Introduction......Page 1631<br>Prepulse inhibition......Page 1632<br>Ambient noise......Page 1633<br>Relationship between hearing loss and central plasticity......Page 1634<br>Auditory Neurophysiology......Page 1635<br>Acknowledgment......Page 1636<br>References......Page 1637<br>Further Reading......Page 1639<br>Overview and Background......Page 1641<br>Interaural Time Disparity: The Cue for Low-Frequency Sound Localization......Page 1642<br>Processing Interaural Time Disparities: Physiology......Page 1643<br>Inputs to Nucleus Laminaris......Page 1644<br>Encoding of Interaural Time Disparities in Nucleus Laminaris......Page 1646<br>Intrinsic Properties of Nucleus Laminaris Neurons Specialized for Interaural Time Disparity Computation......Page 1647<br>The Role of Inhibition in Nucleus Luminaris Function......Page 1649<br>Mammalian Interaural Time Disparity-Encoding Circuitry......Page 1651<br>Response Properties of Medial Superior Olive Neurons......Page 1652<br>The Role of Inhibition in the Medial Superior Olive......Page 1653<br>The Neural Code for Interaural Time Disparity in Mammals......Page 1654<br>References......Page 1655<br>Introduction......Page 1659<br>The Superior Olivary Complex......Page 1660<br>The Three Main Acoustical Cues to Sound Source Location......Page 1661<br>Interaural Level Differences......Page 1663<br>Lateral Superior Olive Neurons Receive Excitatory Inputs from One Ear and Inhibitory Inputs from the Other Ear......Page 1664<br>Spectral representation by lateral superior olive afferents......Page 1665<br>The Inputs from Each Ear to Individual Neurons Have Similar Frequency Tuning......Page 1666<br>Inputs from the Two Ears Reach Lateral Superior Olive Neurons in Approximate Temporal Register......Page 1668<br>Sensitivity to interaural level differences in pure-tone stimuli......Page 1671<br>Sensitivity to interaural level differences in virtual space (VS) stimuli that mimic free-field sounds......Page 1673<br>Comparative Studies Implicate the LSO as Necessary for ILD Processing......Page 1677<br>References......Page 1678<br>Further Reading......Page 1681<br>Glossary......Page 1683<br>Overview......Page 1684<br>Early Studies of Human Head-Related Transfer Functions......Page 1685<br>Modern Studies of Human Head-Related Transfer Functions......Page 1687<br>Directional Transfer Functions......Page 1690<br>Modeling the Auditory-Nerve Representation of Monaural Spectral Cues......Page 1691<br>Distinguishing Sound Localization and Directional Acuity......Page 1694<br>Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus......Page 1696<br>Inferior Colliculus......Page 1698<br>Altering the Ear’s Input to the Brain......Page 1702<br>Spectral Manipulations......Page 1703<br>Cochlear Deficits......Page 1707<br>Experimental Lesions of the Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus......Page 1708<br>Experimental Lesions of the Inferior Colliculus and Its Projections......Page 1710<br>Species Comparisons of the Spectral Processing Pathway......Page 1713<br>References......Page 1717<br>Further Reading......Page 1721<br>Cochlear Physiology......Page 1723<br>Cochlear Anatomy......Page 1724<br>Cochlear Development......Page 1725<br>Further Reading......Page 1726<br>Introduction......Page 1729<br>The Medial Superior Olive of Normal Low-Frequency Hearing Mammals......Page 1731<br>The Medial Superior Olive of Normal High-Frequency Hearing Mammals......Page 1734<br>The Medial Superior Olive of Bats......Page 1736<br>Frequency-modulated bats......Page 1737<br>Constant-frequency-frequency-modulated bats......Page 1739<br>Frequency-modulated bats......Page 1741<br>Conclusions......Page 1742<br>References......Page 1743<br>Parallel Pathways for Processing Interaural Time Difference and Interaural Intensity Difference......Page 1747<br>Detection and Coding of Interaural Time Difference......Page 1748<br>A Map of Auditory Space......Page 1749<br>References......Page 1750<br>Further Reading......Page 1751<br>Introduction......Page 1753<br>Constraints and Limitations......Page 1754<br>Directional Detection with Particle Velocity Receivers......Page 1755<br>Directional Hearing Using Pressure Difference Receivers......Page 1756<br>Directional Hearing Using Mechanically Coupled Pressure Receivers......Page 1757<br>Microsecond-Range Acoustic Events and Neural Responses......Page 1758<br>References......Page 1759<br>Glossary......Page 1761<br>Sources of Ascending Inputs to the Inferior Colliculus......Page 1763<br>Binaural and Monaural Pathways......Page 1764<br>The Ventral Cochlear Nucleus System......Page 1765<br>The Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus System......Page 1767<br>Laminar Projections Within the Anteroventral Cochlear Nucleus System......Page 1769<br>Relation between Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus and Ventral Cochlear Nucleus System Projections......Page 1770<br>Relation with Intrinsic Connections......Page 1772<br>Biochemical Gradients......Page 1773<br>Evidence for Functional Gradients......Page 1774<br>References......Page 1775<br>Further Reading......Page 1778<br>Structure of the Nuclei of the Lateral Lemniscus......Page 1779<br>Role of the Dorsal Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus in Binaural Hearing......Page 1781<br>Role of the Nuclei of the Lateral Lemniscus in Frequency Integration......Page 1782<br>Concluding Remarks......Page 1783<br>References......Page 1784<br>Further Reading......Page 1785<br>Glossary......Page 1787<br>Visual Calibration of the Auditory Space Map......Page 1788<br>Developmental Regulation of Map Plasticity......Page 1789<br>Training in Small Increments......Page 1790<br>Further Reading......Page 1791<br>Introduction......Page 1793<br>First Level of Cortical Processing: The Core Areas......Page 1795<br>Second Level of Cortical Processing: The Areas of the Auditory Belt......Page 1797<br>Middle Lateral and Anterior Lateral Areas......Page 1799<br>Third Level of Cortical Processing: The Auditory Parabelt Areas......Page 1800<br>Levels of Auditory Processing Defined by Inputs from the Parabelt: Areas of the Fourth Level......Page 1801<br>Auditory Cortex in Other Mammals......Page 1802<br>Cats and Other Carnivores......Page 1803<br>Bats......Page 1804<br>Conclusions......Page 1805<br>References......Page 1806<br>Further Reading......Page 1808<br>Glossary......Page 1809<br>Spatial Receptive Fields in the Primary Auditory Cortex......Page 1810<br>Spatial Sensitivity Outside Area A1......Page 1812<br>Spatial Sensitivity in Unanesthetized Cats......Page 1814<br>Dynamic Spatial Sensitivity......Page 1816<br>Multiple Sound Sources......Page 1817<br>Acoustic Basis for Spatial Sensitivity......Page 1818<br>Sound Localization by Single Neurons......Page 1820<br>Information-Bearing Features of Spike Patterns......Page 1821<br>Location Signaling by Populations of Neurons......Page 1822<br>Impact of Cortical Inactivation on Localization Behavior......Page 1824<br>Role of the Auditory Cortex in Operant Localization of Sound Sources......Page 1825<br>Reversible Cortical Inactivation......Page 1826<br>Summary of Effects of Cortical Inactivation......Page 1827<br>Spatial Hearing and the Human Auditory Cortex......Page 1828<br>Summary and Future Directions......Page 1829<br>References......Page 1830<br>Further Reading......Page 1833<br>Glossary......Page 1835<br>Introduction and the History of the Study of Pitch......Page 1836<br>Measuring Pitch as a Subjective Attribute of Sound......Page 1837<br>Musical Pitch......Page 1838<br>Place and Temporal Processing of Frequency (and Their Relationship to Pitch)......Page 1839<br>Pitch of Complex Sounds (Introduction to and the History of Complex Pitch Perception)......Page 1841<br>Missing Fundamental Pitch and the Pitch-Shift of the Residue......Page 1842<br>Temporal Fine Structure and Complex Pitch Processing......Page 1844<br>Models and Theories of Complex Pitch Processing......Page 1846<br>Which Type of Model Provides the Better Predictions for Complex Pitch?......Page 1850<br>Pitch Strength or Pitch Saliency......Page 1851<br>Neural Processing of Pitch......Page 1852<br>References......Page 1855<br>Further Reading......Page 1856<br>Glossary......Page 1857<br>Introduction......Page 1859<br>Speech Production......Page 1860<br>Linguistic Sound Systems......Page 1862<br>The Inverse Problem......Page 1864<br>Information for Perception......Page 1865<br>Contrast in General......Page 1867<br>Contrast and Perception of Co-Articulated Speech......Page 1868<br>Broader Spectral and Temporal Effects......Page 1871<br>Speech Perception Uses Multiple Sources of Information......Page 1873<br>Categorical Perception......Page 1874<br>Principal components analysis: an analogy......Page 1875<br>Categorical perception as competing correlations......Page 1876<br>Multimodal interactions are expected......Page 1877<br>Vowels......Page 1878<br>Second-Language Perception......Page 1879<br>Lexical Development and the Emergence of Phonemes (or Something like Them)......Page 1881<br>Speech in the Brain......Page 1882<br>References......Page 1884<br>Glossary......Page 1889<br>The Problem of Mixtures......Page 1890<br>The auditory stream......Page 1891<br>Grouping of Acoustic Energy Based on Acoustic Regularities......Page 1892<br>Cooperation and competition in ASA......Page 1893<br>Main findings......Page 1894<br>Other findings......Page 1895<br>Brain Recording and the Role of Attention in ASA......Page 1896<br>Summary......Page 1897<br>Relevant Websites......Page 1898<br>Glossary......Page 1899<br>Introduction......Page 1900<br>Frequency resolution and discrimination......Page 1901<br>Intensity Coding......Page 1903<br>Absolute sensitivity......Page 1904<br>Intensity discrimination......Page 1906<br>Temporal Resolution......Page 1907<br>Sound localization......Page 1908<br>Binaural masking level difference and spatial release from masking......Page 1909<br>Sound Source Determination......Page 1910<br>Selective listening to relevant sound features......Page 1912<br>Ignoring irrelevant sound features......Page 1913<br>Listening to competing messages......Page 1914<br>Summary and Conclusion......Page 1915<br>References......Page 1916<br>Glossary......Page 1923<br>Sleep and Memory Consolidation in Humans......Page 1924<br>Auditory Memory Consolidation......Page 1925<br>Bird Song Learning......Page 1926<br>The Role of Sleep in Song Learning: Circadian Deconsolidation during Vocal Development......Page 1927<br>Evidence for Reactivation during Sleep in Humans......Page 1928<br>Mechanisms of Sleep and Memory Consolidation in Vocal Learning......Page 1929<br>Physiological specificity within the auditory pathways......Page 1930<br>State-Dependent Auditory Processing in the Song System of Awake Birds......Page 1931<br>Neuromodulatory processing in the song system of awake birds......Page 1932<br>Site and form of the replay phenomenon......Page 1933<br>Plasticity in Robust Nucleus of Archopallium replay - spontaneous and auditory activity......Page 1934<br>Sleep-mediated developmental plasticity in Robust Nucleus of Archopallium......Page 1935<br>References......Page 1936<br>Volume 4 - Olfaction and Taste......Page 1940<br>Introduction to Volume 4......Page 1944<br>Dedication......Page 1946<br>Introduction......Page 1948<br>Nature of Chemical Signals......Page 1949<br>Dynamics of Chemical Signals......Page 1951<br>Receptor Expression Patterns......Page 1952<br>Receptor-Ligand Pairings......Page 1954<br>Receptor Gene Family Evolution......Page 1955<br>Receptor Cell Turnover......Page 1957<br>Signal Transduction......Page 1958<br>Mechanical Processes......Page 1960<br>Biochemical Processes......Page 1961<br>Central Neural Organization......Page 1962<br>Quality Coding......Page 1963<br>Chemosensory-Mediated Behavior and Plasticity......Page 1965<br>References......Page 1967<br>Further Reading......Page 1972<br>Glossary......Page 1974<br>Introduction......Page 1975<br>Biochemistry of Sweet Taste......Page 1976<br>Sweetener Structure-Activity Relationship......Page 1978<br>Carbohydrate caloric, partially caloric and noncaloric sweeteners......Page 1979<br>Synthetic noncaloric sweeteners......Page 1983<br>Natural noncaloric sweeteners......Page 1989<br>Sweet-tasting minerals......Page 1995<br>Temporal profiles......Page 1996<br>Biochemistry of Bitter Taste......Page 1997<br>Bitterant Structure-Activity Relationship......Page 2000<br>Biochemistry of Umami Taste......Page 2003<br>Umami Tastant Structure-Activity Relationship......Page 2004<br>Sour-Tasting Stimuli......Page 2005<br>Biochemistry of Sour Taste......Page 2006<br>Acidulant Structure-Activity Relationship......Page 2009<br>Biochemistry of Salty Taste......Page 2011<br>Salty Tastant Structure-Activity Relationship......Page 2013<br>References......Page 2015<br>Further Reading......Page 2021<br>Introduction......Page 2022<br>Organization of the Peripheral Gustatory System......Page 2023<br>Bitter Compounds......Page 2024<br>Carbohydrates......Page 2027<br>Salts......Page 2028<br>Acids......Page 2029<br>Organization of the Central Gustatory System......Page 2030<br>Central Processing of Gustatory Input......Page 2031<br>Coding Mechanisms......Page 2032<br>Taste-Mixture Interactions......Page 2033<br>Nutrient Levels in Blood......Page 2034<br>Long-term adaptation......Page 2035<br>Future Directions......Page 2036<br>References......Page 2037<br>Aquatic Animal Models in the Study of Chemoreception......Page 2044<br>Glossary......Page 2045<br>Introduction......Page 2046<br>Fish......Page 2047<br>Crustaceans......Page 2048<br>Specificity of single olfactory receptor neurons......Page 2049<br>Correlation between olfactory receptor neuron type, transduction process, and odorant sensitivity......Page 2050<br>Olfactory sensilla......Page 2051<br>Tuning......Page 2052<br>Processing Chemical Information by Single Peripheral Chemoreceptor Neurons of Crustaceans......Page 2053<br>Organization of the olfactory bulb......Page 2054<br>Odotopic representation of odorants in the teleost olfactory bulb......Page 2055<br>Odorant specificity of single olfactory bulb neurons......Page 2056<br>Olfactory forebrain......Page 2058<br>Organization of the olfactory lobes......Page 2059<br>Organization of other chemosensory neuropils......Page 2060<br>Neurogenesis and Turnover of Olfactory Neurons in Adult Crustaceans......Page 2061<br>Peripheral Taste Anatomy......Page 2062<br>Peripheral Nerve Taste Responses......Page 2063<br>Processing Taste Information by Single Peripheral Taste Fibers......Page 2064<br>Taste and Tactile Input to the Central Nervous System (Medulla)......Page 2065<br>Introduction......Page 2066<br>Taste......Page 2067<br>Electrophysiology......Page 2068<br>Behavior......Page 2069<br>Fish......Page 2070<br>Overview......Page 2071<br>References......Page 2072<br>Ultrastructure of Taste Buds......Page 2082<br>History......Page 2083<br>General Morphological Features of Rabbit Foliate Taste Buds......Page 2085<br>Type I cells......Page 2086<br>Type III cells......Page 2087<br>Primary Taste Bud Cell Types......Page 2090<br>Type I cells......Page 2091<br>Type II cells......Page 2092<br>Type IV cells (basal cells)......Page 2093<br>Taste Cell Synapses......Page 2094<br>Atypical mitochondria......Page 2095<br>Concluding Remarks......Page 2096<br>References......Page 2097<br>Further Reading......Page 2101<br>Introduction......Page 2104<br>The Taste Periphery: Of Buds and Bumps......Page 2105<br>Development of the Taste Periphery: How Does Taste Bud Pattern Arise?......Page 2106<br>Taste Bud Development in Axolotls......Page 2107<br>Taste Bud Development in Rodents......Page 2108<br>Molecular Mechanisms of Taste Patterning......Page 2109<br>Development of the Circumvallate Papilla, a Specialized Structure in Mammals......Page 2111<br>Taste Bud Cell Lineage and Turnover......Page 2112<br>Development of Gustatory Innervation......Page 2113<br>Development of Peripheral Taste Innervation......Page 2114<br>Development of Projections of Gustatory Neurons to the Central Nervous System......Page 2118<br>Survival and Maintenance of Gustatory Neurons and Taste Buds......Page 2119<br>Plasticity of Central Taste Connections......Page 2121<br>References......Page 2122<br>Relevant Website......Page 2128<br>Fetal Life and Infancy......Page 2130<br>Childhood and Adolescence......Page 2131<br>Childhood......Page 2132<br>References......Page 2133<br>Taste Analgesia in Human Infants......Page 2136<br>General Properties......Page 2137<br>Outstanding Issues and Recent Developments......Page 2138<br>Ontogeny of Taste-Analgesia and Efficacy for Inflammatory Pain......Page 2139<br>Neural Circuitry......Page 2140<br>Future Directions......Page 2141<br>References......Page 2142<br>Introduction......Page 2144<br>Discovery of TAS2Rs......Page 2145<br>Expression of TAS2R genes in oral tissues......Page 2146<br>Tuning of TAS2Rs to their agonists......Page 2147<br>Activation of TAS2Rs by agonists......Page 2148<br>G-protein coupling......Page 2149<br>Polymorphisms and Functional Heterogeneity of TAS2Rs......Page 2150<br>Structure-function studies of family C receptors’ venus flytrap module......Page 2151<br>Role of the transmembrane domain in family C G-protein-coupled receptors......Page 2152<br>Identification of Sac locus GPCR Tas1R3 - Tas1R3 is Sac......Page 2153<br>Ligand-Binding Sites on Tas1Rs......Page 2154<br>Activity assays map the sweet receptor aspartame interaction site to the VFTM of hTas1R2......Page 2155<br>Mutational analysis of the aspartame interaction site within the venus flytrap module of hTas1R2......Page 2156<br>The cysteine-rich domain of Tas1R3......Page 2157<br>Future Studies/Unanswered Questions......Page 2159<br>References......Page 2161<br>Introduction......Page 2166<br>Taste Buds, Taste Cell Types, and Afferent Innervation......Page 2167<br>Salt Taste......Page 2168<br>ENaC - the amiloride-sensitive salt taste receptor......Page 2169<br>Amiloride-insensitive mechanisms......Page 2170<br>Proton-gated ion channels......Page 2171<br>PKD1L3 and PKD2L1......Page 2172<br>G proteins......Page 2173<br>Effector enzymes......Page 2174<br>Target channels......Page 2175<br>Fatty acid modulation of taste cells......Page 2176<br>Adenosine Triphosphate as a Transmitter......Page 2177<br>Serotonin and Other Neuroactive Modulators......Page 2178<br>References......Page 2179<br>Glossary......Page 2184<br>Functional Organization of the Taste System in Vertebrates......Page 2185<br>Primary sensory nuclei......Page 2186<br>Visceral-Limbic Connections......Page 2187<br>Gustatory Centers in Fish: A Comparative Viewpoint......Page 2188<br>Facial nerve specializations......Page 2189<br>Brainstem Reflex Connections......Page 2191<br>Second-Order Gustatory Nuclei......Page 2192<br>Primary Sensory Nucleus......Page 2193<br>Primary afferent inputs......Page 2194<br>Subdivisions and cell types......Page 2195<br>Brainstem Reflex Connections......Page 2197<br>Topography of taste quality......Page 2200<br>Lemniscal Pathway......Page 2201<br>Basal Forebrain and Descending Pathways......Page 2202<br>References......Page 2203<br>Further Reading......Page 2206<br>Neurotransmitters in the Sensory Ganglia Involved in Transmission of Taste Information......Page 2208<br>Neurotransmitters in the Rostral Nucleus of the Solitary Tract Involved in Processing of Taste Information......Page 2209<br>Neurotransmitters in the Parabrachial Nucleus Involved in Processing of Taste Information......Page 2212<br>Synaptic Effects of Neuromodulators Known to have Profound Effects on Feeding Behavior on rNST Neurons......Page 2213<br>Conclusions......Page 2214<br>References......Page 2215<br>History of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Applied to the Study of Task-Dependent Cerebral Activation......Page 2218<br>Mapping Brain Activity in Response to Taste Stimulation......Page 2219<br>The Insular/Opercular Area and the Role of Anterior Inferior Insula......Page 2220<br>Timing of Activation: Magnetoencephalography Experiments......Page 2221<br>Orbitofrontal Cortex, an Integrative Area Contributing to Hedonic Valence and Food Reward......Page 2222<br>Other Areas......Page 2223<br>References......Page 2224<br>Relevant Website......Page 2226<br>Epithelial Na+ Channel Function......Page 2228<br>Epithelial Na+ Channel Structure......Page 2229<br>Epithelial Na+ Channel Regulation......Page 2230<br>Regulation of Epithelial Na+ Channel by Intracellular Ca2+ and Salt Taste......Page 2231<br>Regulation of Epithelial Na+ Channel by Osmolarity and Salt Taste......Page 2232<br>Regulation of Epithelial Na+ Channel by Proteases and Salt Taste......Page 2233<br>References......Page 2234<br>Introduction......Page 2236<br>Morphological cell types......Page 2239<br>Cell types based on biophysical properties......Page 2240<br>Cell types based on gustatory responsiveness......Page 2241<br>Breadth of tuning of nucleus of the solitary tract and parabrachial nuclei neurons......Page 2244<br>Convergence, orotopy, and oral somatosensory responsiveness......Page 2245<br>Physiological alterations......Page 2247<br>Homeostatic mechanisms: feeding and appetite......Page 2248<br>Learning: conditioned preferences and aversions......Page 2249<br>Gamma-aminobutyric acid, tonic inhibition......Page 2250<br>Other neurotransmitters: dopamine, acetylcholine, and nitric oxide......Page 2251<br>Lateral hypothalamus......Page 2252<br>Central nucleus of the amygdala......Page 2253<br>Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis......Page 2254<br>Organization and relationship to other sensory modalities......Page 2255<br>Taste-somatosensory relationships......Page 2256<br>Taste-olfactory relationships......Page 2257<br>Breadth of tuning......Page 2259<br>Excitatory amino acids......Page 2260<br>Gamma-aminobutyric acid......Page 2261<br>Acetylcholine......Page 2262<br>Neurochemical substrate for conditioned taste aversion......Page 2263<br>Limbic Forebrain......Page 2264<br>Conclusions......Page 2265<br>References......Page 2266<br>Introduction......Page 2276<br>Population Coding and Neural Interactions......Page 2277<br>Functional Implications of Interactive Population Coding......Page 2278<br>The Purposes of Neural Interactions in Taste......Page 2280<br>References......Page 2281<br>Glossary......Page 2286<br>Color......Page 2287<br>Smell......Page 2288<br>Chemosensory Quality Constancy......Page 2289<br>References......Page 2290<br>Glossary......Page 2292<br>Oral Chemesthesis: Anatomy......Page 2293<br>Oral Chemesthesis: Physiology......Page 2297<br>Chemoirritation: Temporal Phenomena......Page 2300<br>Irritant-Taste Interactions......Page 2303<br>Peripheral Interactions......Page 2305<br>Central Interactions - Nucleus of the Solitary Tract......Page 2308<br>Cognitive Interactions......Page 2309<br>References......Page 2310<br>Further Reading......Page 2316<br>Genetics and Evolution of Taste......Page 2318<br>Assessing Taste Behavior......Page 2319<br>Behavioral Genetic Techniques......Page 2320<br>Genetics of Taste Responses to Other Bitter Compounds in Mice......Page 2323<br>Evolution of the T2R Receptors......Page 2324<br>Strain Differences in Responses to Sweet-Tasting Stimuli......Page 2326<br>Umami Taste Genetics......Page 2327<br>Evolution of T1R Receptors......Page 2329<br>Taste and Diet......Page 2330<br>Conclusions......Page 2331<br>References......Page 2332<br>Relevant Websites......Page 2337<br>Glossary......Page 2338<br>Visual Analog Scales and Category Scales: Invalid for Across-Group Psychophysical Comparisons......Page 2339<br>Magnitude Matching......Page 2340<br>How Are Supertasters Defined?......Page 2341<br>Cancer Risk......Page 2343<br>References......Page 2344<br>Further Reading......Page 2346<br>What Makes Salt Taste Salty?......Page 2348<br>Liking for Salt: Sodium Need......Page 2349<br>Liking for Salt: Need-Free Consumption......Page 2350<br>What Are the Functions of Salt in Food?......Page 2351<br>What Can Be Done to Reduce Salt Consumption?......Page 2352<br>References......Page 2353<br>Further Reading......Page 2354<br>Introduction......Page 2356<br>Domains of Taste Function......Page 2357<br>Procedure......Page 2358<br>Limitations......Page 2360<br>Limitations......Page 2361<br>Limitations......Page 2362<br>Procedure......Page 2363<br>Peripheral Mechanisms of Salt Taste......Page 2364<br>Use of Behavioral Procedures to Study the Functional Neuroanatomy of the Central Gustatory System......Page 2366<br>Taste function after lesions in the gustatory nuclei......Page 2367<br>References......Page 2369<br>General Description......Page 2376<br>Salience of Taste Cues......Page 2377<br>Neural Mediation of Food Aversion Learning......Page 2378<br>Food Aversions in Humans......Page 2379<br>Clinical Implications......Page 2380<br>References......Page 2381<br>Further Reading......Page 2382<br>Glossary......Page 2384<br>Central Representation of Flavor......Page 2385<br>Somatic Motor Responses......Page 2386<br>Benzodiazepine......Page 2387<br>Opioids......Page 2389<br>Substances Related to Negative Hedonics......Page 2390<br>The Role of Dopamine in Food Reward......Page 2391<br>The Nucleus Accumbens......Page 2392<br>Feeding Behavior to Palatable and Aversive Foods......Page 2393<br>Aversion Learning......Page 2395<br>Brain Imaging Study on Hedonic Evaluation in Humans......Page 2397<br>References......Page 2399<br>Relevant Website......Page 2405<br>Dopamine and Reward......Page 2406<br>Dopamine and Sucrose Preference......Page 2407<br>Central Pathways of Sucrose Reward......Page 2409<br>Sucrose Reward without Dopamine......Page 2410<br>References......Page 2411<br>The Primary and Secondary Taste Cortex......Page 2416<br>The Representation of Flavor: Convergence of Olfactory and Taste Inputs......Page 2417<br>The Rules Underlying the Formation of Flavor Representations in the Primate Cortex......Page 2418<br>The Responses of Orbitofrontal Cortex Taste and Olfactory Neurons to the Texture, and Temperature of Food......Page 2419<br>Taste......Page 2420<br>Olfactory-Taste Convergence to Represent Flavor......Page 2421<br>Cognitive Influences on Olfactory and Flavor Processing......Page 2423<br>References......Page 2424<br>Further Reading......Page 2425<br>Introduction......Page 2426<br>Taste Thresholds in a General Elderly Population......Page 2427<br>Sodium salts......Page 2429<br>Sweet compounds......Page 2430<br>Astringent compounds......Page 2431<br>Nonuniformity of Taste Loss......Page 2432<br>Magnitude Estimation......Page 2433<br>Qualitative Perception in the Elderly......Page 2434<br>Medications Associated with Taste Alterations......Page 2435<br>Medical Conditions Associated with Taste Complaints......Page 2438<br>Cause of Taste Losses in the Absence of Drugs and Disease......Page 2439<br>Final Comment......Page 2441<br>References......Page 2442<br>Receptor Potential as an Initial Membrane Excitation......Page 2446<br>Can Olfactory Receptor Cells Detect a Single Odorant Molecule?......Page 2448<br>Enzyme - Second Messenger: cyclic AMP and InsP3......Page 2449<br>Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channel......Page 2450<br>Signal Amplification: Comparison with the Phototransduction......Page 2451<br>Adaptation......Page 2453<br>Functional Roles of Molecular Elements in the Olfactory Cilia......Page 2454<br>Resting Membrane Potential and Spike Discharges......Page 2455<br>Further Reading......Page 2456<br>Phylogeny......Page 2458<br>Structure......Page 2460<br>Pore......Page 2461<br>Cyclic Nucleotide-Binding Domain......Page 2462<br>C-Linker region......Page 2463<br>Amino-Terminal Domain......Page 2464<br>Physiology......Page 2465<br>Modulation......Page 2467<br>Conclusion......Page 2468<br>References......Page 2469<br>Introduction......Page 2474<br>Protein Structure......Page 2475<br>Olfactory Receptor Genes......Page 2476<br>Single-Receptor Gene Choice......Page 2477<br>Spatial Expression Pattern......Page 2478<br>Ectopic Expression......Page 2479<br>General Considerations for Functional Expression......Page 2480<br>Olfactory Receptor Pharmacology......Page 2481<br>Odorant-Binding Site......Page 2483<br>Odorant Sensitivity and Specificity......Page 2484<br>Axon Guidance......Page 2485<br>Pheromone Detector......Page 2486<br>References......Page 2487<br>Organization and Structure of the Odorant Receptor Genes......Page 2492<br>Single Odorant Receptor Expression in Each Olfactory Sensory Neuron......Page 2493<br>Positive Regulation......Page 2494<br>Negative Regulation......Page 2495<br>References......Page 2497<br>The Zebrafish OR Repertoire......Page 2500<br>Comparison of the Zebrafish, Mouse, and Pufferfish OR Repertoires......Page 2501<br>Conserved Motifs in Predicted OR Protein Sequences......Page 2504<br>Evolution of the Vertebrate OR Gene Repertoire......Page 2506<br>Relevant Website......Page 2507<br>Genomics of Invertebrate Olfaction......Page 2508<br>Introduction......Page 2509<br>An Overview of Invertebrate Chemosensory Organs and Their Molecular Components......Page 2510<br>Comparative evolutionary genomics......Page 2513<br>Functional genomics of Obps......Page 2517<br>Insect Chemosensory Proteins......Page 2518<br>Functional genomics of Csps......Page 2519<br>Odorant Receptors......Page 2520<br>Drosophila odorant receptors......Page 2521<br>Anopheles odorant receptors......Page 2522<br>Lepidopteran odorant receptors......Page 2523<br>DOr83b family......Page 2524<br>Str/srh gene families......Page 2525<br>Signaling Cascade......Page 2526<br>Insects......Page 2527<br>Ion Channels......Page 2528<br>The Caenorhabditis elegans Calcineurin TAX-6......Page 2529<br>Conclusion and Perspectives......Page 2530<br>References......Page 2531<br>Glossary......Page 2538<br>Sensory Neurons......Page 2539<br>Basal Cells......Page 2541<br>Ongoing Olfactory Neurogenesis......Page 2542<br>Toxic Injury to the Olfactory Epithelium......Page 2544<br>Effects of Viral Infection on the Olfactory Epithelium......Page 2545<br>Globose Basal Cells Are the Only Population for Which Functional Heterogeneity Has Been Demonstrated......Page 2546<br>Are Some Cells Among the Globose Basal Cells Tissue Stem Cells of the Olfactory Epithelium?......Page 2548<br>Normal Organization of the Axonal Projection from the Olfactory Epithelium onto the Olfactory Bulb......Page 2549<br>Organization of the Projection Following Recovery from Injury to the Periphery......Page 2551<br>Functional Recovery Following Epithelial Lesion or Nerve Transection......Page 2552<br>Conclusions and Unanswered Questions......Page 2553<br>References......Page 2554<br>Glossary......Page 2560<br>The Mammalian Olfactory Bulb Network......Page 2561<br>Building Neuronal Networks during Adulthood......Page 2562<br>Maturation and Functional Integration......Page 2563<br>Functions of Newly Formed Interneurons in the Olfactory Bulb......Page 2564<br>Properties Conferred by Neurons Generated in Adulthood......Page 2565<br>Ethological Relevance of Adult Neurogenesis......Page 2566<br>Concluding Remarks......Page 2567<br>Further Reading......Page 2568<br>Relevant Websites......Page 2569<br>Glossary......Page 2570<br>Olfactory Epithelium......Page 2572<br>Olfactory Nerve Layer......Page 2573<br>Glomerular Layer......Page 2574<br>Subependymal Zone - Rostral Migratory Stream......Page 2575<br>Tufted cells......Page 2576<br>Blanes cells......Page 2577<br>Glia......Page 2578<br>Glomerular Layer......Page 2579<br>External Plexiform Layer......Page 2580<br>Lateral Olfactory Tract and Olfactory Cortex......Page 2582<br>Acknowledgments......Page 2583<br>References......Page 2584<br>Physiology of the Main Olfactory Bulb......Page 2588<br>Projections of Olfactory Receptor Neurons to Main Olfactory Bulb......Page 2589<br>Neurophysiological Properties of Glomerular Layer Neurons......Page 2590<br>ET cells......Page 2591<br>PG cells......Page 2594<br>ON glutamatergic synaptic input to JG and mitral/tufted cells......Page 2595<br>Spillover of dendritically released glutamate......Page 2598<br>ET and mitral/tufted cell dendrodendritic input to PG and SA cells......Page 2599<br>GABA and GABAB receptors......Page 2600<br>ET and mitral/tufted cell dendrodendritic interactions with PG and SA cells......Page 2602<br>Neuromodulation in the GL......Page 2604<br>Tufted Cells......Page 2606<br>Spontaneous Discharge and Intrinsic Membrane Properties......Page 2607<br>Dendritic Spike Propagation......Page 2609<br>Neuron Types of the GCL......Page 2610<br>Neurophysiology of GCs......Page 2611<br>Neurophysiology of Blanes Cells......Page 2612<br>Self-inhibition......Page 2613<br>Role of Ca2+ influx through N-methyl d-aspartate receptors and voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels......Page 2614<br>Neurophysiology of Primary Olfactory Cortical Inputs to Main Olfactory Bulb......Page 2615<br>Theta rhythm......Page 2616<br>Synchrony among JG cells......Page 2617<br>Synchrony among mitral cells......Page 2618<br>Oscillations, Synchrony and Odor Coding......Page 2619<br>Cholinergic Inputs to MOB......Page 2620<br>Noradrenergic Input to MOB......Page 2621<br>Serotonergic (5-HT) Input to MOB......Page 2622<br>References......Page 2623<br>Further Reading......Page 2632<br>Introduction......Page 2634<br>Functions of Sensory Cortex......Page 2635<br>Cortical Neurocircuitry......Page 2636<br>Cortical-Cortical Connectivity......Page 2637<br>Piriform Cortex Synaptic Physiology......Page 2639<br>Odorant Intensity......Page 2640<br>Odorant Quality......Page 2641<br>Sensory Gating......Page 2646<br>Odorant Familiarity and Meaning......Page 2648<br>Odor Discrimination......Page 2650<br>Background Segmentation......Page 2651<br>References......Page 2652<br>Introduction......Page 2654<br>Filtering and Contrast Enhancement......Page 2655<br>Mechanisms Underlying Oscillations and Spike Synchronization......Page 2659<br>Detailed Biophysical Models of OB Neurons......Page 2660<br>Conclusions......Page 2661<br>References......Page 2662<br>Combinatorial Coding......Page 2666<br>Chemotopic Progressions......Page 2667<br>Predictive Value of Activity Maps......Page 2668<br>References......Page 2669<br>Further Reading......Page 2670<br>Insect Olfaction......Page 2672<br>Glossary......Page 2673<br>Introduction......Page 2676<br>Antennal Lobe Glomeruli......Page 2677<br>Glomerular Atlas of the Antennal Lobe......Page 2678<br>Projection of olfactory sensory neurons into the antennal lobe......Page 2679<br>Olfactory sensory neuron odor responses......Page 2680<br>Olfactory sensory neuron transmitters......Page 2681<br>Morphology of local neurons......Page 2682<br>Physiology of local neurons......Page 2683<br>Projection neuron morphology and tracts......Page 2684<br>Projection neuron numbers......Page 2685<br>Feedback Neurons and Biogenic Amines......Page 2686<br>Functional Organization in the Antennal Lobe......Page 2688<br>Odor-Evoked Activity Across Glomeruli......Page 2689<br>Contrast enhancement in the antennal lobe......Page 2690<br>Temporal activity structures......Page 2691<br>Coding Odor Concentration and Odor Mixtures......Page 2692<br>Sexual pheromones......Page 2693<br>Carbon dioxide......Page 2694<br>Effects of Memory......Page 2695<br>Kenyon Cells......Page 2696<br>Projection Neuron Input......Page 2697<br>Odor-Evoked Activity and Processing......Page 2698<br>Effects of Memory......Page 2699<br>Cellular and Functional Organization of the Lateral Protocerebrum......Page 2700<br>Odor Learning......Page 2701<br>Social Communication - Pheromones......Page 2702<br>Navigation - Innate Odors......Page 2703<br>Limitations and Potential of Using Insects to Study Olfactory Coding......Page 2704<br>References......Page 2705<br>Relevant Websites......Page 2716<br>Glossary......Page 2718<br>Distribution of Odorants in the Environment......Page 2719<br>Diffusion versus Turbulent Diffusion......Page 2720<br>Temporal/Spatial Structure......Page 2722<br>Quantity......Page 2723<br>Spatial comparisons of odor concentration (bilaterally symmetrical sensors)......Page 2724<br>Importance of Active Sampling Behaviors to Odor Detection and Processing......Page 2725<br>Conclusions......Page 2726<br>References......Page 2727<br>Glossary......Page 2730<br>Introduction......Page 2731<br>A Brief Historical Perspective......Page 2732<br>Basic Anatomical Organization......Page 2733<br>Zonal Segregation of the Vomeronasal System......Page 2735<br>Molecular Physiology of Neuronal Sensing......Page 2736<br>Signal Transduction Mechanisms......Page 2738<br>Stimulus access......Page 2741<br>Urinary volatiles......Page 2742<br>Major histocompatibility complex peptide ligands......Page 2743<br>Proteins......Page 2744<br>Inputs from the Vomeronasal Organ......Page 2745<br>Functional Organization of the Accessory Olfactory Bulb......Page 2746<br>Interneurons......Page 2748<br>Outputs of the Accesory Olfactory Bulb......Page 2749<br>Mechanisms of Behavior......Page 2751<br>Male Aggression to Intruder Males......Page 2752<br>Timing of Puberty, Cyclicity, and Ovulation in Females......Page 2753<br>Pregnancy Block and Individual Recognition in Females: The Bruce Effect......Page 2754<br>References......Page 2755<br>Introduction......Page 2762<br>On the Size of the Repertoires......Page 2763<br>Monogenic and Monoallelic V1r Expression......Page 2764<br>Genomic Parallels and Divergences with V1rs......Page 2765<br>References......Page 2766<br>Glossary......Page 2770<br>Introduction......Page 2771<br>Olfactometers......Page 2773<br>Jars......Page 2775<br>The Assumed Threshold Model......Page 2776<br>Measuring the Threshold Model......Page 2777<br>Nonolfactory Detection of Airborne Chemicals......Page 2778<br>Reported Absolute Thresholds......Page 2779<br>Olfactory Discrimination......Page 2783<br>Discriminating between Different Concentrations......Page 2784<br>Discriminating between Different Odorants......Page 2785<br>Speed of Olfactory Discrimination......Page 2787<br>Olfactory Identification......Page 2788<br>Language and Olfactory Identification......Page 2789<br>Identification of an Odor Rather than Its Parts......Page 2790<br>Nostril-Specific Odor Tuning......Page 2791<br>Identifying Odor Characteristics......Page 2794<br>Explicit similarity methods......Page 2795<br>Implicit similarity methods......Page 2796<br>References......Page 2798<br>Relevant Websites......Page 2804<br>Disorders of Taste and Smell......Page 2806<br>Glossary......Page 2807<br>Introduction......Page 2811<br>Gustatory Pathways......Page 2812<br>Symptoms of Chemosensory Dysfunction......Page 2813<br>Medical History and Examination......Page 2814<br>Causes of Chemosensory Dysfunction......Page 2815<br>Allergies and Rhinosinusitis......Page 2817<br>Head Trauma......Page 2818<br>Tumors and Central Nervous System Lesions......Page 2819<br>Congenital and Inherited Disorders......Page 2821<br>Kallmann’s syndrome......Page 2822<br>Psychiatric Disorders......Page 2823<br>Seasonal affective disorder......Page 2824<br>Alzheimer’s disease......Page 2825<br>Multiple sclerosis......Page 2826<br>Progressive supranuclear palsy......Page 2827<br>Epilepsy......Page 2828<br>Treatment of Chemosensory Disorders......Page 2829<br>Summary......Page 2830<br>References......Page 2831<br>Volume 5 - Pain......Page 2835<br>Introduction to Volume 5......Page 2840<br>Noxious Stimulus......Page 2842<br>References......Page 2844<br>Pain Theories......Page 2846<br>References......Page 2850<br>Glossary......Page 2852<br>Introduction......Page 2853<br>Light Microscopic Structure......Page 2855<br>Ultrastructure......Page 2856<br>Skin......Page 2858<br>Light microscopy......Page 2859<br>Electron microscopy......Page 2860<br>Light microscopy......Page 2861<br>Electron microscopy......Page 2862<br>Muscle......Page 2863<br>Tendon......Page 2865<br>Ultrastructure of articular free nerve endings......Page 2866<br>Toothache......Page 2868<br>Light and electron microscopy......Page 2869<br>Neuropeptide content and equipment with receptor molecules......Page 2872<br>Light and electron microscopy......Page 2873<br>Visceral pain......Page 2874<br>General Remarks......Page 2875<br>Neuropeptides in Afferent Units of Different Tissues......Page 2876<br>Neuropeptides in Nociceptors and Other Types of Free Nerve Ending......Page 2877<br>Neurogenic Inflammation......Page 2878<br>References......Page 2879<br>Further Reading......Page 2882<br>Glossary......Page 2884<br>Introduction......Page 2885<br>Structure Dictates Function: The Anatomy of the Nociceptor......Page 2886<br>Efferent function......Page 2888<br>Slow axonal transport......Page 2889<br>P2X adenosine triphosphate-gated ion channels......Page 2890<br>Proton-gated ion channels......Page 2891<br>Transient receptor potential ion channels......Page 2892<br>Ion Channels Influencing Passive Membrane Properties: Membrane Resistance......Page 2894<br>Action potential downstroke......Page 2895<br>After potential......Page 2896<br>Action potential threshold......Page 2897<br>G-protein-coupled receptors......Page 2898<br>Neurotrophin receptors......Page 2899<br>Shared Modalities and Polymodality......Page 2900<br>Functional Interactions between Nociceptor Proteins......Page 2901<br>Inflammation-Induced Changes in Nociceptor Sensory function - Inflammatory Pain......Page 2902<br>Nerve injury-induced changes in transduction......Page 2903<br>Changes in membrane stability......Page 2904<br>Conclusion......Page 2905<br>References......Page 2906<br>Epidemiology and Course of Herpes Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia......Page 2916<br>Mechanisms of Acute Zoster Pain......Page 2918<br>Pathophysiology of Postherpetic Neuralgia......Page 2919<br>References......Page 2920<br>Relevant Websites......Page 2922<br>Precipitating Factors......Page 2924<br>Ectopic Mechanosensitivity......Page 2925<br>Ongoing Pain, Tender-Points, and Other Sensitivities......Page 2926<br>Resonance......Page 2927<br>References......Page 2928<br>How Do Sodium Channels Work?......Page 2930<br>Nav1.3 and Neuropathic Pain......Page 2933<br>Nav1.8 and Nociception......Page 2934<br>The Diversity of Sodium Channel Subtypes......Page 2935<br>Further Reading......Page 2936<br>Glossary......Page 2938<br>C-Fiber Nociceptors......Page 2939<br>A-Fiber Nociceptors......Page 2943<br>Classification of Nociceptors Based on Molecular Markers......Page 2944<br>Efferent and Trophic Functions of Nociceptors......Page 2945<br>Heat pain from glabrous skin is signaled by C-fiber nociceptors......Page 2946<br>First pain to heat on hairy skin is signaled by type II A-fiber nociceptors......Page 2947<br>Capsaicin-Evoked Pain......Page 2949<br>Hyperalgesia to mechanical stimuli......Page 2950<br>Inflammatory mediators and nociceptor sensitization......Page 2952<br>Central mechanisms of secondary hyperalgesia......Page 2953<br>References......Page 2954<br>Introduction and Definition of Itch......Page 2956<br>Is Itch Distinct from Pain?......Page 2957<br>Peripheral and Spinal Mechanisms of Itch......Page 2958<br>Alloknesis (Itchy Skin) and Sensitization......Page 2960<br>Animal Models of Itch......Page 2961<br>Itch Mediators......Page 2962<br>Acknowledgments......Page 2963<br>References......Page 2964<br>Cloning of TRPV1 and its characterization......Page 2968<br>Reduction of temperature threshold for TRPV1 activation: A mechanism for inflammatory pain......Page 2969<br>TRPM8......Page 2970<br>Conclusion......Page 2971<br>References......Page 2972<br>The Development of Nociceptors and Their Peripheral and Spinal Connections......Page 2974<br>The Development of Spinal Nociceptive Circuits......Page 2976<br>Pain and the Developing Cortex......Page 2977<br>The Development of Descending Pain Pathways......Page 2978<br>Development of Neurotransmitter/Receptor Function in Descending Pathways......Page 2979<br>Concluding Remarks......Page 2981<br>References......Page 2982<br>Modular Organization of Sensorimotor Circuits in the Spinal Cord......Page 2988<br>Functional Adaptation of Sensorimotor Circuits During Development......Page 2990<br>References......Page 2993<br>Further Reading......Page 2995<br>Modifying a Child’s Pain......Page 2996<br>Guidelines for Treating Acute Pain......Page 2998<br>Guidelines for Treating Chronic Pain......Page 3002<br>References......Page 3004<br>Further Reading......Page 3005<br>Microarray Analysis of Whole Dorsal Root Ganglion from the Spinal Nerve Ligation Model......Page 3006<br>Microarray Analysis of Subpopulations of Neurons Isolated from Dorsal Root Ganglion......Page 3008<br>Evaluation of Additional Neuropathic Pain Models by Microarray......Page 3010<br>The Strengths and Limitations of Microarray Analysis for Pain Research......Page 3011<br>The Genetics of Pain......Page 3012<br>References......Page 3013<br>Glossary......Page 3016<br>Identification of nociceptors in diverse phyla......Page 3017<br>Conserved mechanisms of nociceptive transduction......Page 3018<br>Common nociceptive functions mediated by diverse neural circuits......Page 3019<br>Nociceptive Plasticity and Sensitization......Page 3020<br>Local protein synthesis and primitive memory mechanisms......Page 3021<br>Cognitive and Emotional Responses to Noxious Stimulation Differ across Species......Page 3022<br>References......Page 3023<br>MC1R and the Melanocortin-1 Receptor......Page 3026<br>MC1R and Analgesia......Page 3027<br>MC1R and Pain......Page 3029<br>References......Page 3031<br>Glossary......Page 3034<br>Introduction......Page 3035<br>Reactions of the Sympathetic Nervous System in Pain......Page 3037<br>Visceral Afferents, Autonomic Nervous System, and Pain......Page 3039<br>Hyperalgesia and Sympathetically Mediated Changes in Referred Zones During Visceral Pain......Page 3040<br>Clinical Background: Sympathetically Maintained Pain......Page 3042<br>Sympathetically Maintained Pain Following Nerve Lesion Simulated in Behavioral Animal Models......Page 3043<br>Coupling between lesioned postganglionic and afferent nerve terminals......Page 3046<br>Coupling in the dorsal root ganglion and collateral sprouting following peripheral nerve lesion......Page 3047<br>Synopsis......Page 3049<br>Changes of neurovascular transmission and development of hyperreactivity of blood vessels......Page 3050<br>Sensitization of nociceptors mediated by sympathetic terminals independent of excitation and release of noradrenaline......Page 3052<br>Nerve growth factor......Page 3053<br>Sympatho-adrenal system and nociceptor sensitization......Page 3054<br>The Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Type I as Model......Page 3057<br>Sympathetic Nervous System and Acute Experimental Inflammation......Page 3059<br>References......Page 3062<br>Further Reading......Page 3066<br>Introduction......Page 3068<br>Sympathetically Maintained Pain......Page 3069<br>Sympathetic Block for Diagnosis......Page 3070<br>Local Anesthetic Sympathetic Blocks......Page 3071<br>Systemic Alpha-Adrenergic Blockade......Page 3072<br>Local Anesthetic Sympathetic Blocks and Intravenous Regional Sympathetic Blockade......Page 3073<br>Surgical Sympathectomy......Page 3074<br>References......Page 3075<br>Further Reading......Page 3076<br>Glossary......Page 3078<br>The Discovery......Page 3079<br>Formation of Perineuronal Rings or Baskets......Page 3080<br>Underlying Cellular Mechanisms......Page 3081<br>Other Forms of Sympathetic Plasticity after Nerve Injury......Page 3082<br>References......Page 3083<br>Glossary......Page 3086<br>Thoracic Visceral Organs......Page 3087<br>Abdominal Vagal Afferents, Protection of the Body, and Illness Responses......Page 3088<br>References......Page 3090<br>Sex Differences in Responses to Pain Treatment......Page 3094<br>Mechanisms Underlying Sex Differences in Pain......Page 3095<br>References......Page 3096<br>Glossary......Page 3100<br>Neurotrophins and Development of Nociceptors......Page 3101<br>Acute Changes......Page 3103<br>Mechanisms of Nerve Growth Factor Action in the Skin......Page 3104<br>Acute Sensitization by Nerve Growth Factor of the Response of Dissociated Nociceptors......Page 3105<br>TrkA Signaling Pathways Responsible for Acute Effects of Nerve Growth Factor......Page 3106<br>p75 Receptor Influence on Sensory Neuron Function......Page 3107<br>TRPV1 Receptors......Page 3108<br>Na+ Channels......Page 3109<br>Joint Receptors......Page 3110<br>Role of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Neurotrophin-4, and Neurotrophin-3 in Peripheral Sensitization......Page 3111<br>Neurotrophins and Neuropathic Pain......Page 3112<br>Discussion, Conclusions, and Open Questions......Page 3113<br>References......Page 3114<br>Glossary......Page 3120<br>Overall Organization of Dorsal Horn: Rexed Lamination......Page 3121<br>Types of Afferents, Neurochemistry, and Termination in Spinal Cord......Page 3124<br>Synaptic Arrangements of Primary Afferents......Page 3125<br>Receptors on Primary Sensory Fibers......Page 3127<br>Dorsal Horn Neurons......Page 3129<br>Correspondence with function......Page 3130<br>Expression of NK-1r in subpopulations of lamina I neurons......Page 3132<br>Lamina II Neurons......Page 3133<br>Laminae III-VI......Page 3134<br>Neurokinins......Page 3135<br>Enkephalins......Page 3136<br>Glutamate......Page 3137<br>Glycine......Page 3138<br>Other classical transmitters and other neuropeptides......Page 3139<br>Identified Neuronal Circuits......Page 3140<br>Conclusion and Future Directions......Page 3142<br>References......Page 3143<br>Organization of the Spinal Cord......Page 3152<br>Laminae I and II (the Substantia Gelatinosa)......Page 3153<br>Modality of Input to Lamina I......Page 3154<br>Receptive Field Characteristics......Page 3155<br>Projections and Function of Lamina I Neurons......Page 3156<br>Receptive Field Characteristics......Page 3157<br>Projections and Function of Outer Lamina II Neurons......Page 3160<br>Lamina III......Page 3161<br>The Ventral Horn......Page 3162<br>Somatotopic Organization......Page 3163<br>Intrinsic Properties of Spinal Dorsal Horn Neurons......Page 3164<br>Gap Firing Neurons......Page 3166<br>Relationship between Intrinsic Firing Patterns and Physiological Types of Dorsal Horn Neurons......Page 3167<br>References......Page 3168<br>Glossary......Page 3172<br>General......Page 3173<br>Plasticity......Page 3174<br>Perturbance of the Basic Somesthetic Activity by a Painful Focus......Page 3176<br>Multiple or Vast Painful Foci......Page 3177<br>References......Page 3178<br>Glossary......Page 3180<br>Heat injury......Page 3182<br>Peripheral nerve stimulation......Page 3183<br>Peripheral nerve injury......Page 3184<br>Spinal cord injury......Page 3185<br>Neuropeptides......Page 3186<br>Excitatory amino acids......Page 3187<br>Neurotrophins......Page 3190<br>Second messengers......Page 3191<br>Transcription factors......Page 3194<br>Excitatory amino acid receptors......Page 3195<br>Other receptors......Page 3196<br>Ion channels......Page 3197<br>Microglia......Page 3199<br>Neuron-glial interactions......Page 3200<br>Cell death......Page 3201<br>Abeta fibers......Page 3202<br>References......Page 3203<br>Relevant Website......Page 3221<br>Glycinergic Innervation in the Spinal Cord Dorsal Horn......Page 3222<br>Glycine Receptors in the Spinal Control of Inflammatory Pain......Page 3223<br>Glycine Receptors in the Spinal Control of Neuropathic Pain......Page 3224<br>References......Page 3225<br>Further Reading......Page 3226<br>Pain Following Spinal Cord Injury......Page 3228<br>Clinical Characteristics of Spinal Injury Pain......Page 3229<br>The Research Challenge of Spinal Injury Pain......Page 3230<br>Pathophysiology of Spinal Cord Injury......Page 3231<br>Mechanism(s) of Pain Following Spinal Injury......Page 3232<br>Loss of Inhibitory Tone......Page 3233<br>Pattern Generators of Pain......Page 3234<br>Cell Signaling Pathways: Synaptic Plasticity and Functional State......Page 3235<br>Future Directions......Page 3236<br>References......Page 3237<br>Further Reading......Page 3240<br>Introduction......Page 3242<br>Induction of Long-Term Potentiation in Pain Pathways......Page 3243<br>Signal Transduction Pathways......Page 3244<br>Prevention of Long-Term Potentiation......Page 3245<br>References......Page 3246<br>Glossary......Page 3248<br>Proinflammatory Cytokines......Page 3249<br>Tumor necrosis factor-alpha......Page 3250<br>Interleukin-1beta......Page 3251<br>Interleukin-6......Page 3252<br>Chemokines......Page 3253<br>Nerve Growth Factor......Page 3254<br>Other Mediators: Bradykinin......Page 3255<br>Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines......Page 3256<br>Opioid receptor signaling in sensory neurons......Page 3257<br>Proopiomelanocortin-derived opioid peptides......Page 3258<br>Migration of opioid-containing immune cells to inflamed tissue......Page 3259<br>Analgesic effects of corticotropin releasing factor, interleukin-1beta, and noradrenaline......Page 3261<br>Endogenous opioid analgesia......Page 3262<br>Perspectives......Page 3263<br>References......Page 3264<br>Relevant Website......Page 3268<br>Glial Activation in Response to Neurotransmitters......Page 3270<br>Glial Activation by Unique Neuron-to-Glia Signals......Page 3271<br>Beyond Neuropathic Pain: Glial Activation in Response to Opioids......Page 3272<br>References......Page 3273<br>Introduction......Page 3276<br>General Features......Page 3279<br>Neurochemical and Molecular Properties of Trigeminal Ganglion Neurons......Page 3280<br>Central Aspects of Trigeminal Organization......Page 3282<br>Somatotopy......Page 3283<br>Relationship to the Autonomic Nervous System......Page 3284<br>Neurochemical Markers......Page 3285<br>Efferent Projections......Page 3287<br>Functional Considerations......Page 3288<br>Chronic Craniofacial Pain......Page 3289<br>References......Page 3291<br>Further Reading......Page 3301<br>Migraine - Explaining the Clinical Features......Page 3302<br>Migraine Aura......Page 3303<br>Sensitization and Migraine......Page 3304<br>The Trigeminocervical Complex......Page 3305<br>Brain Imaging in Humans......Page 3307<br>What is Migraine?......Page 3308<br>References......Page 3309<br>Glossary......Page 3310<br>Normal Teeth/Acute Pain......Page 3311<br>Dental Neuropathic Pain......Page 3313<br>Tooth Pain: Diagnosis and Management......Page 3314<br>References......Page 3315<br>Ascending Pathways: Anatomy and Physiology......Page 3318<br>Glossary......Page 3319<br>Defining Nociceptive Ascending Pathways......Page 3320<br>The Spinothalamic System......Page 3321<br>Spinal Laminae of Origin and Sites of Termination......Page 3322<br>Response properties......Page 3323<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3324<br>Structural types of neurons involved......Page 3325<br>Neurotransmitters......Page 3326<br>Pathways driven at the target......Page 3327<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3328<br>Response properties......Page 3329<br>Structural types of neurons involved......Page 3330<br>Pathways driven at the target......Page 3332<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3333<br>Pathways driven at the target......Page 3334<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3335<br>Spinal location of ascending fibers......Page 3336<br>Response properties......Page 3337<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3338<br>Response properties......Page 3341<br>Spinodiencephalic Pathways......Page 3342<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3343<br>Spinal location of ascending fibers......Page 3345<br>Response properties......Page 3346<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3348<br>Structural types of neurons involved......Page 3349<br>Pathways driven at the target......Page 3350<br>Spinal laminae of origin and sites of termination......Page 3351<br>Spinal location of ascending fibers......Page 3352<br>Thelencephalic Targets of Spinal Ascending Fibers......Page 3353<br>Spinal Laminae of Origin......Page 3354<br>Multiple Parallel Ascending Pathways......Page 3355<br>Spinal Neuronal Populations at the Origin of Nociceptive Ascending Pathways......Page 3357<br>Nociceptive Ascending Pathways as Part of a Complex Nociceptive Integration System......Page 3358<br>References......Page 3359<br>Glossary......Page 3368<br>Anterolateral cordotomy......Page 3369<br>Limited midline myelotomy......Page 3370<br>Spinothalamic Tract......Page 3371<br>Effects of interruption of the dorsal column or a lesion of dorsal column nuclei on responses of brainstem and thalamic neurons to noxious visceral stimuli......Page 3372<br>Effects of a dorsal column lesion on behavioral responses......Page 3374<br>Blockade of synaptic relay in sacral cord by morphine or 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione......Page 3375<br>Projections of the postsynaptic dorsal column pathway......Page 3377<br>Fos expression in PSDC neurons after noxious visceral stimulation......Page 3379<br>Descending Facilitation......Page 3380<br>References......Page 3381<br>Glossary......Page 3384<br>Visceral Sensation......Page 3385<br>Visceral Nociceptors and Sensory Endings......Page 3386<br>Chemical Character of Visceral Sensory Neurons......Page 3388<br>Spinal nerves......Page 3390<br>Spinal pathways and supraspinal terminations......Page 3391<br>Functional Basis of Visceral Pain......Page 3392<br>Afferent fiber recordings......Page 3393<br>Information acquired in vitro......Page 3394<br>Gene deletions, visceral pain, and mechanosensation......Page 3397<br>Sleeping (Silent) Nociceptors......Page 3398<br>Visceral Chemo-Nociception......Page 3399<br>Visceral Hypersensitivity......Page 3400<br>Sensitization and Excitability of Visceral Nociceptors......Page 3401<br>Central Sensitization......Page 3402<br>Central Modulation of Visceral Pain......Page 3404<br>Summary......Page 3405<br>References......Page 3406<br>Further Reading......Page 3409<br>Clinical Presentation and Epidemiology......Page 3412<br>Visceral Hypersensitivity......Page 3413<br>Peripheral Up-Regulation of Visceral Afferent Sensitivity......Page 3414<br>Spinal and Supraspinal Up-Regulation of Visceral Afferent Sensitivity......Page 3415<br>References......Page 3416<br>Introduction......Page 3420<br>Variables Associated with the Severity of Labor Pain......Page 3421<br>Analgesia for Labor and Delivery......Page 3422<br>Future Aspects......Page 3423<br>References......Page 3424<br>Sensor Molecules Expressed in Urothelium Which Could Contribute to Bladder Pain......Page 3426<br>Response to Stimuli: Transducer Function of Urothelial Cells......Page 3428<br>How Might Urothelial Cells Influence Pain Processes?......Page 3429<br>References......Page 3430<br>The Brainstem and Nociceptive Modulation......Page 3434<br>Functional Characterization of the Periaqueductal Gray-Rostral Ventromedial Medulla Pain-Modulating System......Page 3435<br>Pain Modulation as Part of Adaptive Responses to Behavioral and Physiological Challenges......Page 3436<br>The Periaqueductal Gray......Page 3437<br>Afferents to the Periaqueductal Gray......Page 3438<br>Columnar Organization of the Periaqueductal Gray......Page 3439<br>Endogenous opioids......Page 3440<br>Opioid tolerance and dependence......Page 3442<br>Substance P......Page 3444<br>The Rostral Ventromedial Medulla and Facilitation of Nociception......Page 3445<br>Physiological classification of rostral ventromedial medulla neurons based on reflex-related activity......Page 3446<br>Role of on- and off-cells in pain modulation......Page 3448<br>Role of neutral cells......Page 3449<br>Gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate: the off-cell pause and on-cell burst......Page 3450<br>Opioid actions in the rostral ventromedial medulla......Page 3451<br>Norepinephrine......Page 3452<br>Nociceptin/orphanin FQ......Page 3453<br>Behavioral state control: anesthesia and sleep/waking cycle......Page 3454<br>Environmental analgesia......Page 3455<br>Conclusion......Page 3456<br>References......Page 3457<br>Active versus Passive Emotional Coping......Page 3468<br>Dorsolateral periaqueductal gray......Page 3469<br>Dorsolateral periaqueductal gray......Page 3471<br>References......Page 3474<br>Further Reading......Page 3475<br>Introduction......Page 3476<br>Ventroposterior nuclei......Page 3477<br>Posterior part of the ventromedial nucleus......Page 3478<br>Central lateral nucleus......Page 3479<br>Comparative Physiological Findings......Page 3480<br>Ventroposterior Nuclei......Page 3481<br>Posterior Thalamus and Posterior Part of the Ventromedial Nucleus......Page 3482<br>Medial Dorsal Nucleus......Page 3484<br>Direct Physiological Evidence in Humans......Page 3485<br>Innocuous Cooling-Responsive Neurons......Page 3486<br>Stimulation-Induced Pain and Temperature Sensations......Page 3487<br>Physiological Observations in Central Pain Patients......Page 3488<br>Effects of Thalamic Lesions on Pain......Page 3489<br>Pharmacology......Page 3490<br>References......Page 3491<br>Glossary......Page 3496<br>The Spinothalamic Tract......Page 3497<br>Lateral Thalamic Nuclei......Page 3498<br>Parasylvian Cortex and Pain Memory......Page 3504<br>References......Page 3506<br>Nociceptive Processing in the Cerebral Cortex......Page 3510<br>Introduction......Page 3511<br>Methods to Study Nociceptive Processing in the Human Cerebral Cortex......Page 3512<br>The Primary Somatosensory Cortex......Page 3514<br>Parasylvian Cortex: the Operculo-Insular Region......Page 3515<br>The frontal operculum......Page 3516<br>The Posterior Parietal Cortex......Page 3517<br>The Cingulate Cortex......Page 3518<br>Location and Quality of Phasic Pain......Page 3519<br>Attention and Distraction Effects on Pain-Evoked Cortical Activity......Page 3521<br>Hypnosis and pain-evoked cortical activity......Page 3522<br>Opiates......Page 3523<br>Overview Regarding the Role of the Cortex in Acute Pain Perception......Page 3524<br>Studying Brain Activity in Chronic Pain with Nonspecific Painful Stimuli......Page 3525<br>Clinical Pain Conditions Studied by Stimulation and the Role of the Cortex......Page 3526<br>Irritable bowel syndrome......Page 3527<br>Spontaneous Pain as a Confound in Assessing Brain Activity......Page 3528<br>Neuropathic Pain......Page 3530<br>Overview Regarding the Role of the Cortex in Chronic Pain Perception......Page 3531<br>References......Page 3532<br>Definition......Page 3540<br>Peripheral Mechanisms of Phantom Limb Pain......Page 3541<br>The Spinal Cord......Page 3542<br>Supraspinal Changes......Page 3543<br>Implications for the Treatment and Prevention of Phantom Limb Pain......Page 3544<br>References......Page 3545<br>Further Reading......Page 3546<br>Glossary......Page 3548<br>The Insula as the Fifth Lobe of the Brain......Page 3549<br>The Insula as a Node in a Distributed Cortical Network......Page 3550<br>Recording and Stimulation of the Human Insula Are Justified only in the Context of Presurgical Evaluation of Epilepsy......Page 3551<br>The Laser Stimulus......Page 3552<br>Intracortical Insular Recordings......Page 3553<br>The Challenge of Insular Stimulation......Page 3555<br>References......Page 3556<br>Relevant Websites......Page 3557<br>Anatomical Location......Page 3558<br>Connections of the Rostral Agranular Insular Cortex......Page 3559<br>Relationship with Adjacent Cortical Regions......Page 3560<br>From Rats to Humans......Page 3561<br>Further Reading......Page 3562<br>Descending Control Mechanisms......Page 3564<br>Introduction......Page 3565<br>Midbrain PAG matter......Page 3566<br>PAG-RVM-spinal dorsal horn circuitry......Page 3567<br>A7 cell column......Page 3568<br>Lateral reticular nucleus......Page 3569<br>Cerebral cortex......Page 3570<br>Opioid peptides......Page 3571<br>Orphanin FQ, nocistatin, and neuropeptideFF......Page 3572<br>Noradrenaline......Page 3573<br>Serotonin......Page 3574<br>Gamma-aminobutyric acid and glycine......Page 3575<br>Brain-derived neurotrophic factor......Page 3576<br>Acetylcholine......Page 3577<br>Summary......Page 3578<br>Pain modulatory neurons......Page 3579<br>Facilitatory effect......Page 3580<br>Plasticity of Descending Pathways......Page 3581<br>Descending inhibition in persistent pain......Page 3582<br>Descending facilitation in persistent pain......Page 3583<br>Time-dependent shift in descending control......Page 3584<br>Phenotypic changes in pain modulatory neurons......Page 3586<br>Molecular mechanisms of activity-dependent plasticity in descending pathways......Page 3587<br>Significance of Altered Descending Modulation in Persistent Pain......Page 3588<br>Opioids......Page 3589<br>References......Page 3590<br>Further Reading......Page 3602<br>Diffuse Noxious Inhibitory Controls (DNIC)......Page 3604<br>A Spinally Mediated Process......Page 3605<br>A Spinally Mediated Process Involving Supraspinal Structures......Page 3609<br>The Role of Wide-Dynamic-Range Neurons......Page 3610<br>References......Page 3613<br>Introduction......Page 3616<br>Abnormal Response to Stressors......Page 3617<br>Temporal Summation of Second Pain (Wind-Up)......Page 3618<br>Trigger Points......Page 3619<br>Treatment of Fibromyalgia......Page 3620<br>References......Page 3621<br>Glossary......Page 3624<br>Definition, Epidemiology, and Relevance......Page 3625<br>Sleep Fragmentation and Deprivation......Page 3626<br>Nociception - Pain Perception during Sleep......Page 3627<br>Sleep Arousal: Brain and Autonomic Activation......Page 3630<br>Circular Relation between Pain and Poor Sleep and Putative Consequence on Health Cost......Page 3631<br>References......Page 3632<br>Relevant Website......Page 3635<br>Introduction......Page 3636<br>Opioids and Their Receptors......Page 3637<br>Kinins and Their Receptors......Page 3639<br>Cannabinoids and Their Receptors......Page 3640<br>Prostanoids and Receptors......Page 3642<br>Cytokines, Chemokines, and Their Receptors......Page 3643<br>Adrenoceptors......Page 3644<br>Glutamate Regulation and Glutamate Receptors......Page 3645<br>Ligand-Gated Channels......Page 3646<br>P2X Receptors......Page 3647<br>Sodium Channels......Page 3648<br>Calcium Channels......Page 3649<br>Neurotrophins and Their Receptors......Page 3650<br>Botulinum Toxin......Page 3651<br>References......Page 3652<br>Further Reading......Page 3659<br>-Opioid-Receptor-Mediated Pain Processing......Page 3662<br>kappa-Opioid-Receptor-Mediated Processing......Page 3665<br>-Opioid-Receptor-Mediated Processing......Page 3666<br>Opioid Receptor-like (ORL-1, NOP Receptor)-Mediated Processing......Page 3667<br>References......Page 3668<br>Introduction......Page 3674<br>Injury-Induced Sensitization of Peripheral Nerves and Neuropathic Pain......Page 3675<br>Role of Peripheral Nerve Degeneration in Neuropathic Pain......Page 3676<br>Nerve Growth Factor May Mediate Posttranslational Pronociceptive Functions......Page 3677<br>Sodium Channels and Enhanced Peripheral Nerve Activity......Page 3678<br>Role of Calcium Channels......Page 3680<br>Enhanced Afferent Discharges Lead to Central Sensitization in the Spinal Cord......Page 3681<br>Excitatory Transmitters Promote Central Sensitization......Page 3682<br>Role of the Rostralventromedial Medulla in Descending Facilitation of Pain......Page 3683<br>The ON Cells of the Rostralventromedial Medulla Promote Pain Through Descending Facilitation......Page 3684<br>Second-Order Projection Neurons Expressing NK1 Receptors May Result in Activation of Descending Pain Facilitation......Page 3685<br>Descending Facilitation Maintains a Sensitized Spinal Cord: Upregulation of Spinal Dynorphin and Enhanced Release of Primary Afferent Transmitters......Page 3686<br>Descending Facilitation Maintains a Sensitized Spinal Cord: Serotonergic Contributions......Page 3687<br>Summary......Page 3688<br>References......Page 3689<br>Further Reading......Page 3695<br>Relevant Website......Page 3696<br>Animal Models of Neuropathic Pain......Page 3698<br>Models of Central Neuropathic Pain: Spinal Cord Injuries......Page 3699<br>Models of Peripheral Neuropathic Pain: Injury to Peripheral Nerves......Page 3700<br>Models of Peripheral Neuropathic Pain: Distal Nerve Branch Injuries......Page 3701<br>Behavioral Assessment of Neuropathic Pain in Animal Models: Spontaneous Pain, Stimulus-Evoked Pain, and Stimulus-Induced Pain......Page 3702<br>References......Page 3703<br>Neuropathic Pain: Clinical......Page 3706<br>Disease/Anatomy-Based Classification......Page 3707<br>Diabetic neuropathy......Page 3708<br>Fabry’s disease (angiokeratoma corporis diffusum)......Page 3710<br>Phantom limb pain......Page 3711<br>Central pain syndromes......Page 3712<br>Complex painful neuropathic disorders......Page 3713<br>Mechanism-Based Classification......Page 3714<br>Signs and Symptoms in Neuropathic Pain......Page 3715<br>Peripheral Sensitization of Primary Afferent Nociceptors......Page 3717<br>Central Sensitization......Page 3719<br>Central Disinhibition and Fascilitation......Page 3720<br>Peripheral Sensitization of Primary Afferent Neurons in Patients......Page 3721<br>Sensitization to Catecholamines in Patients......Page 3723<br>Central Sensitization in Patients......Page 3725<br>Deafferentation: Hyperactivity of Central Pain Transmission Neurons......Page 3726<br>Diagnostic Tools for Neuropathic Pain......Page 3727<br>Bedside Assessment of Neuropathic Pain......Page 3728<br>Skin Biopsies......Page 3730<br>Indirect Test of Afferent Unmyelinated Fiber Function......Page 3732<br>Do We Have Diagnostic Tool to Dissect Individual Mechanisms in Neuropathic Pain?......Page 3733<br>Therapy......Page 3734<br>Anticonvulsants (Ca Channel Modulators)......Page 3735<br>Cannabinoids......Page 3736<br>Treatment Guideline......Page 3737<br>References......Page 3738<br>Concept of Neurogenic Inflammation......Page 3742<br>Bone Fracture Model for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome I......Page 3743<br>Clinical Symptoms Suggesting Neurogenic Inflammation in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome......Page 3744<br>Hyperhidrosis......Page 3745<br>Experimental Studies......Page 3746<br>Treatment Studies......Page 3747<br>References......Page 3748<br>Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Type I (Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy)......Page 3750<br>Inflammatory Processes......Page 3751<br>Autoimmune etiology......Page 3752<br>The Long Path Approaching the Central Nervous System......Page 3753<br>Validation of clinical diagnostic criteria......Page 3754<br>References......Page 3756<br>Characteristics of Central Pain After Stroke......Page 3760<br>Sensory Abnormalities......Page 3761<br>Epidemiology of Poststroke Pain......Page 3762<br>Mechanisms of Pain......Page 3763<br>Opioids......Page 3764<br>References......Page 3765<br>Further Reading......Page 3766<br>Measuring the Single Dimension of Pain in the Laboratory and in the Clinic......Page 3768<br>Measuring Pain in the Laboratory......Page 3769<br>Measuring Pain in the Clinic......Page 3772<br>Quantitative sensory testing methods......Page 3773<br>Burning mouth syndrome......Page 3774<br>Malignancy......Page 3775<br>Suprathreshold Pain Sensation......Page 3776<br>Advantages of multiple category items......Page 3778<br>Bounded continuous scales: the visual analog scale......Page 3779<br>Unbounded scales: ratio-scaling methods......Page 3780<br>Adapting psychophysical methods to pain assessment......Page 3781<br>Discrimination......Page 3782<br>Sensory decision theory applications to pain assessment......Page 3783<br>Utility of interactive adaptive methods......Page 3784<br>Stimulus integration: double-stimulus, single response methods......Page 3787<br>Psychophysical Studies of Feeling States: Hedonics......Page 3788<br>Validity of Scales of Pain Unpleasantness......Page 3789<br>The Concept of Affective Gain......Page 3790<br>The Need for Scaling Multiple Pain Dimensions......Page 3791<br>Issues Concerning Multidimensional Scaling......Page 3795<br>References......Page 3797<br>Further Reading......Page 3800<br>Introduction......Page 3802<br>Pain and the Neurobiology of Consciousness......Page 3803<br>Central Nervous System Activation......Page 3805<br>Central Nervous System Stimulation......Page 3806<br>Pain and Loss of Consciousness......Page 3807<br>References......Page 3808<br>The Biology of Pain......Page 3810<br>Animal Biology......Page 3811<br>The Psychology of Pain, the Psychology of Humans and the Psychology of Animals......Page 3812<br>Conclusion......Page 3813<br>References......Page 3814<br>Psychological Modulation of Pain......Page 3816<br>Factors contributing to pain unpleasantness......Page 3817<br>Ascending nervous system pathways for pain......Page 3819<br>The pivotal role of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in pain affect......Page 3820<br>Psychophysical Studies of Effects of Attention and Distraction on Pain......Page 3821<br>Other accounts of pain modulation by attentional and cognitive processes......Page 3822<br>Separating the Influence of Attention and Emotions......Page 3823<br>Effect of attention and distraction on pain-evoked activity in the brain......Page 3824<br>Effects on Pain Intensity......Page 3825<br>The Influence of Expectancy on the Immediate Unpleasantness of Clinical Pain......Page 3826<br>Factors That Contribute to the Magnitude of Placebo Analgesia......Page 3827<br>Analyses of Factors That Contribute to the Magnitude of Placebo Analgesia......Page 3828<br>Suggestion......Page 3829<br>Desire for pain reduction......Page 3830<br>Placebo Analgesia As an Emotional Response......Page 3831<br>Do placebo effects result from changes in emotional states?......Page 3832<br>Is pain an emotion?......Page 3833<br>The experience of pain-related emotions......Page 3834<br>Pain anticipation and pain-related fear/anxiety......Page 3836<br>Emotions unrelated to pain......Page 3837<br>Effects of Emotions on Pain: Clinical Studies......Page 3838<br>References......Page 3839<br>Further Reading......Page 3843<br>Methodological Aspects......Page 3844<br>Psychological Explanations......Page 3845<br>Physiological Mechanisms......Page 3846<br>The Nocebo Effect......Page 3847<br>References......Page 3848<br>Glossary......Page 3850<br>Hypnosis Affects Consciousness-Related Brain Mechanisms......Page 3851<br>Hypnotic Analgesia in the Brain......Page 3852<br>Somatic Consequences of Hypnotic Analgesia......Page 3853<br>Clinical Applications of Hypnotic Analgesia......Page 3854<br>Conclusion......Page 3855<br>References......Page 3856<br>Volume 6 - Somatosensation......Page 3858<br>Introduction to Volume 6......Page 3861<br>Dedication......Page 3863<br>Cutaneous Mechanisms of Tactile Perception: Morphological and Chemical Organization of the Innervation to the Skin......Page 3864<br>Glossary......Page 3865<br>Overview of Tactile Perception......Page 3866<br>Primary sensory neurons......Page 3867<br>Stimulus modality......Page 3868<br>Adequate or preferred stimulus......Page 3871<br>Organization of Innervation Among Structurally Complex Tactile Organs......Page 3872<br>Guard hair follicles......Page 3873<br>Glabrous fingertip skin......Page 3874<br>Merkel endings......Page 3877<br>Lanceolate endings and Meissner corpuscles......Page 3878<br>Lanceolate endings......Page 3879<br>Pacinian and Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles......Page 3880<br>Free nerve endings......Page 3881<br>Raccoon glabrous fingertips......Page 3883<br>Degenerin/Epithelial Sodium Channel Superfamily......Page 3884<br>Other Molecules......Page 3885<br>Meissner corpuscle innervation......Page 3886<br>Sensory Transduction and Integration Among Epidermal Keratinocytes......Page 3887<br>Summary......Page 3889<br>References......Page 3890<br>Localization and Ultrastructure of Merkel Nerve Endings......Page 3896<br>Merkel Nerve Endings in Sinus Hairs of Mammals......Page 3897<br>Merkel Nerve Endings in the Mucosa of Mammals......Page 3898<br>Mechanoreceptor Function of Merkel Cells......Page 3899<br>References......Page 3900<br>Further Reading......Page 3901<br>Introduction......Page 3902<br>Classification of Innervating Fibers......Page 3903<br>Afferent Responses to Ramps and Vibration......Page 3904<br>Spatial Resolution of Single Afferents......Page 3905<br>Interpreting Resolution of Single Afferents......Page 3906<br>Responses to Contact Force......Page 3907<br>Signaling Must Be Viewed in Terms of Population Responses......Page 3908<br>More Realistic Population Responses......Page 3911<br>Measures of Stimulus Parameters......Page 3912<br>Hairy Skin......Page 3913<br>Responses to Stroking......Page 3914<br>References......Page 3915<br>Introduction......Page 3918<br>Coding of 2D Shape......Page 3919<br>Roughness/smoothness......Page 3920<br>Psychophysical Studies of 3D Size and Shape......Page 3922<br>Ascending pathways......Page 3923<br>Primary somatosensory cortex......Page 3924<br>Second somatosensory cortex (tactile ventral pathway)......Page 3925<br>Conclusion......Page 3926<br>References......Page 3927<br>Glossary......Page 3930<br>Sensory Systems Supporting Object Manipulation......Page 3931<br>Tactile Sensory Innervation of the Human Hand......Page 3933<br>Deformational Properties of the Fingertips and Coding of Tactile Information in Ensembles of Afferents......Page 3934<br>Relative Spike Timing Provides Fast Information about Mechanical Fingertip Events......Page 3939<br>Control of Grasp Stability......Page 3940<br>Control of Motion of Objects in Hand......Page 3944<br>Predictions and Control Points in Other Modalities......Page 3945<br>Conclusions......Page 3947<br>References......Page 3948<br>Introduction......Page 3950<br>Touch-pressure......Page 3951<br>Flutter-vibration......Page 3953<br>Proprioception......Page 3954<br>Visceral sensation......Page 3955<br>Thermoreceptive Circuits......Page 3957<br>Nociceptive Circuits......Page 3958<br>Spinothalamic tract neurons......Page 3959<br>Postsynaptic dorsal column neurons......Page 3961<br>Spinoreticular neurons......Page 3963<br>Spinohypothalamic and other spinolimbic neurons......Page 3964<br>Cranial Nerve Somatosensory Afferents......Page 3965<br>Thermoreceptive Circuits......Page 3969<br>Joint pain......Page 3970<br>Trigeminothalamic neurons......Page 3971<br>Descending Control Systems......Page 3972<br>References......Page 3973<br>Further Reading......Page 3979<br>Glossary......Page 3980<br>Introduction......Page 3981<br>Somatosensory Afferents and Afferent Pathways......Page 3982<br>Somatosensory Relay Nuclei of the Medulla and Upper Spinal Cord......Page 3983<br>The Dorsal Column-Trigeminal Complex......Page 3985<br>The Nuclei of the Somatosensory Thalamus, Their Spinal Cord and Brainstem Somatosensory Inputs, and Their Cortical Projections......Page 3988<br>The Ventroposterior Nucleus......Page 3989<br>The Ventroposterior Superior Nucleus......Page 3994<br>The Ventroposterior Inferior Nucleus......Page 3996<br>Other Nuclei: The Anterior Pulvinar, the Lateral Posterior Nucleus, the Posterior Group, the Ventroposterior Parvocellular Nucleus, and the Ventromedial Posterior Nucleus......Page 3998<br>References......Page 3999<br>Glossary......Page 4006<br>Introduction......Page 4007<br>The Somatosensory Cortex of Nonprimate Mammals......Page 4008<br>The Somatosensory Cortex of Prosimian Primates......Page 4012<br>The Anterior Parietal Cortex of New World Monkeys......Page 4014<br>Other Somatosensory Areas of New World Monkeys......Page 4016<br>Modules in Area 3b of Old World and New World Monkeys......Page 4017<br>The Anterior Parietal Cortex of Old World Monkeys, Apes, and Humans......Page 4020<br>Architectonic Areas of Lateral and Posterior Parietal Cortex......Page 4026<br>Conclusions......Page 4027<br>References......Page 4028<br>Further Reading......Page 4032<br>Glossary......Page 4034<br>Areal Specification......Page 4035<br>Thalamocortical Axon Guidance......Page 4037<br>Positional cues underlying topography......Page 4039<br>Role of neuronal activity in patterning of the somatosensory cortex......Page 4040<br>References......Page 4042<br>The Evolution of Parietal Areas Involved in Hand Use in Primates......Page 4046<br>Sensory Versus Association Cortex......Page 4047<br>Organization of Anterior Parietal Cortex in Primates (Areas 3b, 3a, 1, and 2)......Page 4049<br>Functional Organization......Page 4050<br>Connections......Page 4054<br>Functional Organization......Page 4058<br>Functional Organization......Page 4061<br>Functional Organization......Page 4063<br>Functional Organization......Page 4066<br>Connections......Page 4067<br>The Evolution of Anterior and Posterior Parietal Cortex......Page 4069<br>References......Page 4071<br>Further Reading......Page 4077<br>Glossary......Page 4078<br>Introduction......Page 4079<br>S1 Responses during Vibrotactile Detection......Page 4080<br>Further Comments on the Functional Role of S1 in Sensory Detection......Page 4081<br>Sensory Discrimination......Page 4083<br>Neuronal Correlates of Flutter Discrimination in S1......Page 4085<br>Artificial Induction of Activity in S1 Underlying Flutter Discrimination......Page 4089<br>Further Comments on the Functional Role of S1 to Flutter Discrimination......Page 4091<br>Conclusion......Page 4093<br>References......Page 4094<br>Further Reading......Page 4095<br>Introduction......Page 4096<br>Anatomical Localization of the Posterior Parietal Cortex......Page 4097<br>Physiological Studies of Posterior Parietal Cortex......Page 4100<br>Reaching as a Model System for Analyzing Sensorimotor Integration......Page 4101<br>Role of Posterior Parietal Cortex in Motor Planning and the Neural Representation of Space......Page 4102<br>Grasping and Hand Manipulation Neurons in Posterior Parietal Cortex......Page 4105<br>Bilateral Coordination of the Hands......Page 4112<br>Posterior Parietal Cortex and Active Touch......Page 4114<br>Acknowledgments......Page 4115<br>References......Page 4116<br>Further Reading......Page 4121<br>Glossary......Page 4122<br>Introduction......Page 4123<br>The Functional Anatomy of the Somatosensory System......Page 4124<br>Functional Circuitry of the Spinal Cord - Comparing Primates and Rodents......Page 4126<br>Representational Maps......Page 4129<br>Peripheral nerve injuries and amputation......Page 4130<br>Dorsal rhizotomy - root cut......Page 4131<br>Deafferentation of the dorsal column nuclei......Page 4132<br>Nonhuman primate studies......Page 4136<br>Behavioral studies in the rodent......Page 4138<br>Activity-dependent changes in synaptic transmission - hebbian learning and long-term potentiation......Page 4139<br>Cortical Plasticity in Braille Readers......Page 4140<br>Musicians: Training, Focal Hand Dystonia, and Rehabilitative Training......Page 4141<br>The Dynamics of the Somatosensory Cortex during Learned Sensorimotor Tasks......Page 4142<br>Changes in Response to Somatosensory Cortical Ablation, Ischemia, or Stroke......Page 4143<br>Cortical Plasticity in Multiple Sclerosis......Page 4146<br>Cortical Plasticity in Response to Other Diseases......Page 4148<br>Cortical Reorganization and Chronic Pain......Page 4149<br>Pathway Divergence and Disinhibition......Page 4151<br>Injury-induced structural changes: axonal sprouting......Page 4152<br>Injury- and experience-induced structural changes in dendrites......Page 4153<br>Atrophy, transneuronal atrophy, and degeneration......Page 4154<br>References......Page 4155<br>Further Reading......Page 4160<br>Intrinsic Signal Imaging of Somatosensory Cortex Organization......Page 4162<br>Optical Imaging of Cortical Topography in Alert Monkeys......Page 4164<br>The Funneling Illusion......Page 4166<br>Intensity of Funneling Percept......Page 4167<br>Presence of Interdigitated Multiple Maps......Page 4169<br>A New Model of Somatosensory Cortex Organization......Page 4172<br>References......Page 4173<br>Further Reading......Page 4176<br>Twenty-Five Years of Multielectrode Recordings in the Somatosensory System: It is All about Dynamics......Page 4178<br>Introduction......Page 4179<br>Location Coding......Page 4180<br>Spatiotemporal Receptive Fields Point to Multiwhisker Integration over Time......Page 4181<br>Multiwhisker Stimulation......Page 4183<br>Bilateral Interactions......Page 4184<br>Coordinated Firing of Simultaneously Recorded Neurons......Page 4186<br>Modified Inputs......Page 4187<br>Behavioral Modulation of Tactile Responses......Page 4188<br>Conclusion and Outlook......Page 4190<br>References......Page 4191<br>Glossary......Page 4194<br>Receptor Structure and Function......Page 4195<br>Location......Page 4196<br>Heat-Sensory Pit Organs of Snakes......Page 4197<br>Receptor Structure and Function......Page 4198<br>Pathways to and through the Central Nervous System......Page 4199<br>Vibrissae in mammals......Page 4200<br>Nonmystacial vibrissae in terrestrial mammals......Page 4202<br>Functions of vibrissae in aquatic mammals......Page 4203<br>Innervation density......Page 4204<br>Evolution and vibrissae......Page 4205<br>Specialized relatively hairless regions of skin in mammals......Page 4206<br>Stars of star-nosed moles......Page 4208<br>Overview......Page 4209<br>References......Page 4213<br>Further Reading......Page 4216<br>Introduction......Page 4218<br>Trichoid Sensillae......Page 4219<br>The Insect Cercal System......Page 4220<br>Central processing of cercal afferent information......Page 4222<br>Mapping of the surface of the insect leg by mechanosensory signals in the locust nervous system......Page 4223<br>References......Page 4224<br>Further Reading......Page 4225<br>Glossary......Page 4226<br>Somatosensory Aspects of Braille Reading......Page 4228<br>One- or Two-Handed Braille Reading......Page 4229<br>Heightened Tactile Acuity......Page 4230<br>The Effects of Practice and Enhanced Attentive Skills......Page 4231<br>The Blind Artist......Page 4232<br>Spatial Cognition and Blindness......Page 4234<br>Evidence for Reorganized Somatosensory Cortex......Page 4235<br>Does Reorganization Follow a Hebbian Model?......Page 4236<br>Response Dynamics in S1 and S2......Page 4237<br>Metabolic Changes......Page 4238<br>Studies in Animals......Page 4239<br>Disrupted tactile processing: effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and stroke......Page 4240<br>Regional distribution of visual cortex activity - perceptual processing......Page 4241<br>Regional distribution of visual cortex activity - cognitive processing......Page 4244<br>Connections with Multisensory Areas......Page 4246<br>Altered Physiology......Page 4247<br>Conclusions......Page 4248<br>References......Page 4249<br>Macrospatial versus Microspatial Tasks......Page 4256<br>Motion, Texture, and Form......Page 4258<br>Visual Imagery and Multisensory Representations......Page 4259<br>Cross-Modal Conflict, Enhancement, and Perceptual Illusions......Page 4262<br>Acknowledgments......Page 4264<br>References......Page 4265<br>Further Reading......Page 4267<br>A......Page 4268<br>B......Page 4285<br>C......Page 4293<br>D......Page 4314<br>E......Page 4323<br>F......Page 4329<br>G......Page 4336<br>H......Page 4343<br>I......Page 4352<br>K......Page 4363<br>L......Page 4365<br>M......Page 4371<br>N......Page 4387<br>O......Page 4401<br>P......Page 4414<br>R......Page 4438<br>S......Page 4449<br>T......Page 4473<br>U......Page 4489<br>V......Page 4490<br>W......Page 4502<br>Y......Page 4503<br>Z......Page 4504<br>