The Science of Religion, Spirituality, and Existentialism

The Science of Religion, Spirituality, and Existentialism
Copyright
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
	Core existential concerns
	The scope and treatment of the present volume
	The broader context
	References
1 Dwelling forever in the house of the lord: on the terror management function of religion
	Terror management theory
		The ontogeny of terror management
		A brief phylogenic history of terror management
	The experimental research supporting terror management theory
	Research directly focused on the terror management function of religion
		The association between religiosity and death anxiety
		Mortality salience and investment in religiosity
		Evidence that strong or bolstered religious belief reduces defensive responses to mortality salience
			What about atheists?
		Summary of the evidence
	Broad implications of a terror management analysis of religion
		WARNING!!! DUMMY ENTRY
			The upside of religion
			The downside of religion
			A tale of two worldviews
				A rock
				A hard place
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
2 Death anxiety and religious belief: a critical review
	Are people afraid of death? Pt 1: Evidence from lists
	Are people afraid of death? Pt 2: Evidence from scales
	Are people afraid of death? Pt 3: Death anxiety and proximity to death
	Are people afraid of death? Pt 4: Death anxiety and mortality salience
	Are people afraid of death? Coda
	Are death anxiety and religiosity correlated?
	Does mortality salience increase religious belief?
	Concluding remarks
	References
3 Face to face with death: the role of religion in coping with suffering
	How do people usually cope with existential concerns?
	The existential and individual functions of religious beliefs
	Conceptualizing God
	When beliefs fail
	Suffering elicits existential concerns
	Facing death
		Disasters
		Terminal and chronic illness
		Trauma
	Religion and suffering: fighting, freezing, fleeing, or flourishing
	Toward existentially resilient religion
	Concluding thoughts
	Acknowledgment
	References
4 Near-death experiences: the mystical feeling of “crossing over” and its impact on faith and spirituality
	Near-death experience phenomenology
	Defining near-death experiences
	Historical reports and estimated incidence of near-death experiences
	Disclosure of near-death experiences
	Explanatory models for near-death experiences
		Physiological explanations
		Psychological explanations
		Psychopathological explanations
		Nonmaterialist explanations
	Impact of near-death experiences
	References
5 Reactance and spiritual possibilities: an application of psychological reactance theory
	Psychological reactance theory
		Historical roots
		Psychological reactance theory framework
			Freedoms
			Elimination and threats to freedom
			Arousal of reactance
			Restoration of freedom
	Psychological reactance theory and religion
	Question 1: Threats to religious freedom and reactance
		Psychological reactance theory predictions
		Supporting evidence
			Impersonal freedom threats
			Oppositional behavioral outcomes
			Subjective outcomes
				Positive evaluation
				Anger and source derogation
		Summary: Question 1
	Question 2: Restrictive faith-based regulations and reactance
		Psychological reactance theory predictions
		Supporting evidence
			Controlling language
			Persuasive intent
		Summary: Question 2
	Question 3: Avoiding or minimizing reactance
		Psychological reactance theory predictions
		Supporting evidence
			Avoiding reactance arousal
				Autonomy-supportive language
				Narrative
			Reducing reactance arousal
				Restoration postscripts
				Inoculation
				Message sensation value
		Summary: Question 3
	Future directions
		Moderators
		Expanding catalysts of reactance
		Expanding outcomes of reactance
	Conclusion
	References
6 Understanding the psychology of religion: the contribution of self-determination theory
	The core concepts of self-determination theory
	How self-determination theory helps us understand different forms of religiosity
	Self-determination theory’s perspective compared with other conceptualizations about religiosity
	Different religious motivations correspond to different ways of approaching religious contents
	Connection between different motivations for religious behaviors and well-being and social outcomes
	The antecedents of religious internalization in the family
	How larger social context could predict self-determined religiosity
	Discussion and conclusion
	Some practical implications
	References
7 A goals perspective on religion and spirituality
	The existential relevance of goals
	Religion and spirituality through the lens of goals: ultimate existential concerns and subjective well-being
		Subjective well-being
	Sanctifying the “everyday”
		Sanctifying objects
		Sanctifying locations
		Sanctifying behavior
	Goal frustration, conflict, and religious zeal
	Are religious and spiritual goals optimal for existential security?
	References
8 Religion and spirituality, free will, and effective self-regulation
	What is free will?
		Philosophical terminology
		The psychological construct of free will belief
	The social-cognition of free will
		Moral judgments and responsibility
		Punishment and retributive versus restorative justice motives
		Self-other bias in free will perceptions
	Effects of free will beliefs
		Prosocial behavior
		Conformity
		Gratitude
	Religion, spirituality, and motivated action
		Self-control
		Rational choice
		Planful behavior
			Values
			Behavioral change
		Taking initiative
	Religion and self-regulation
		Self-regulation as a limited resource
		Religion’s influence in facilitating effective self-regulation
	Concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
9 Authenticity and the true self in religion and spirituality
	The historical emergence of authenticity concerns and their ties to religion
		The true self and authenticity: perspectives from existential philosophy and psychology
		The interplay of religion and authenticity: conceptual and empirical considerations
		Having religious experiences
			Self-transcendence in religious experience
			The noetic quality in religious experiences
			Suggestions for future research
		Holding religious beliefs
			Theistic beliefs
			Body–soul dualism
			Having a religious identity
		Participating in religious communities
			Religion as a means of meeting belongingness needs
			Participation in religious rituals
		Morality: the key to understanding the relationship between religion and authenticity?
	Concluding thoughts: is religion uniquely relevant to authenticity?
	References
10 Freedom as a cross to bear: choice overload, the burdens of freedom, and the benefits of constraint
	Choice overload and paralysis
	“Freedom,” “choice,” “autonomy,” and the “self”
	Sincerity and authenticity
	From “You Are What You Do” to “You Are What You Own”
	Freedom, choice, and welfare: a nonmonotonic relation
	Religion, spirituality, freedom, and choice
	References
11 Social ostracism, religion, and existential concerns
	Temporal need-threat model of ostracism
		Reflexive stage
		Reflective stage
		Resignation stage
	Religion and ostracism
		Religion as a potential source of ostracism
			Ostracism for religious protection
			Ostracism for religious correction and (if necessary) ejection
			Ostracism and God
		Religion as a potential response to ostracism
	Ostracism and extremism
	Concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
12 The holy grail of connection: I-sharing, existential isolation, and religion
	Existential isolation
	I-sharing
	Faith-based practices and existential connection
	I-sharing, intergroup outcomes, and faith
	Summary
	References
13 An attachment theory perspective on religion and spirituality
	Attachment theory: basic concepts
	Religion and attachment: normative aspects
		Points of departure
		Seeking and maintaining proximity to God
		God as a safe haven
		God as a secure base
		The attachment figure is perceived to be stronger and wiser
		Summary
	Religion as attachment: individual differences
		The correspondence pathway
		The compensation pathway
	Coda
	References
14 A social identity approach to religion: religiosity at the nexus of personal and collective self
	Religion, prejudice, and collective action
		Religious orientations
		Religious ideology: orthodoxy, fundamentalism, and components of right-wing authoritarianism
		Specificity of prejudice targets and social identity
		Social identity and the religious self
		Social identity and religious opinion–based groups
		SIMCA and EMSICA models of social identity and collective action
		The normative alignment model of social action and opinion-based group interventions
		Ideology-based social identities
		A tripartite social identity normative model of religious fundamentalism
		Summary of group-based models
	Religion, self-structure, and personal well-being
		The salience model of self-categories
		Convergent perspectives from theories of the personal self
		Self-complexity and the multiple self-aspects model
		Complexity versus coherence
		Convergent perspectives of the self from social identity theorizing
		Religious identity and personal well-being
		Summary of person-based models
	Final summary and conclusion
	References
15 Religion and the construction of identity
	An existential perspective on religion and the construction of identity
		Existential perspectives on identity and religion
			An existential perspective on identity
			An existential perspective on religion
		Psychological approaches to the relation between religion and identity
			A triaxial model
		Common psychological approaches to religion and identity
			Assimilation to personality
			Assimilation to the social
		Experimental existential psychology research on the religious identity
		Toward an integrative model of religion and identity
			Integrative approaches to the x-axis
			Integrative approaches to the z-axis
			Further reflections on the z-axis: secularism and existential identity
		A closing note on the origin
	References
16 Truth and significance: a 3N model (needs, narratives, networks) perspective on religion
	Need(s)
		The epistemic need to know
			Religiosity and the need to understand the world
			Religiosity and the need to understand other people
		The need for personal significance
		Joint working of the two needs
	Narrative
		Common characteristics of religious narratives
		Differences between narratives
		Personal narratives
	Network
		Religion as a social phenomenon
		Religious groups as a source of shared reality
		Religious identification as a source of certainty and significance
		Uniqueness of religious groups
	Interplay between the 3Ns
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
17 Existential uncertainty and religion
	What is religion, and what is uncertainty?
		Religion
		Uncertainty
			Informational uncertainty
			Personal uncertainty
			Putting the two together
	Why does religion help people deal with uncertainty?
	Uncertainty-identity theory
		Identifying with social groups helps alleviate uncertainty
		Entitative groups are especially good at alleviating uncertainty
		Why are religions useful?
	Reactive approach motivation theory
		Uncertainty related to goal pursuit is anxiety-inducing
		Zealously approaching a different goal can quell this anxiety
		Why are religions useful?
	Compensatory control theory
		Personal and external control reassure people that the world is orderly
		Why are religions useful?
	System-justification theory
		Construing the system in a negative light causes dissonance
		Reconstruing the system in a more positive light reduces dissonance
		Why are religions useful?
	Integrating the four perspectives
		How is each type of uncertainty alleviated by religion?
			Informational uncertainty: the purview of reactive approach motivation and compensatory control
			Personal uncertainty: the purview of uncertainty identity and system justification
	Future directions for this field
		Considering religion’s influence on uncertainty
		Conducting cross-cultural investigations
		The relationship between uncertainty and religious fundamentalism
			Increasing uncertainty may lead to increasing fundamentalism
			Increasing uncertainty may lead to increasing support for the status quo
			Resolving the apparent conflict
	Conclusion
	References
18 Cosmic Dad or Cthulhu: why we will always need (religious) absolutes
	Anxiety gives rise to the (religious) Absolute
		Kierkegaard and cosmic horror
	Anxiety dissolves the (religious) Absolute
		Freud and cosmic delusions
	Anxiety gives rise to and dissolves (any) Absolute
		Camus and absurd heroes
	Neuroscience of the Absolute
		Your brain is a meaning-making machine
		Your brain is a meaning-maintenance machine
		Anxiety is everywhere
	The eternal recurrence of the Absolute
	References
19 Religiousness and meaning making following stressful life events
	The meaning making model
	Religiousness and global meaning
	Religion and meaning in stressful life circumstances
		Religiousness and initial appraisals of stressful events
		Religiousness and discrepancy/distress
		Religiousness and meaning making coping
		Religiousness and meanings made
			Changes in appraised meaning
			Changes in global meaning
		Religiousness and stress-related growth
	Future directions in research on religiousness and meaning making
	References
	Further reading
20 Meaning, religious/spiritual struggles, and well-being
	Overview of the positive psychology of religions and spirituality
		The mixed blessing of supernaturalism
	R/S struggles
		Divine struggle
		Demonic struggle
		Interpersonal struggle
		Moral struggle
		Doubt struggle
		Ultimate meaning struggle
		Review of recent research relating R/S struggles to well-being and R/S meaning
		Potential for growth and spiritual maturity
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
21 In his own image: an existential evolutionary perspective on the origins and function of religion
	Terror-management theory’s perspective on religion
	Integrating terror management and evolutionary perspectives on religion
		Theory of mind
		Fear and anxiety
		Disgust
		Inability to imagine nonexistence
		Mind–body dualism
		Elaborating concepts of powerful deities to transcend death
		Conceptual metaphor
		Moral intuitions
	Social aspects of religion
		Religion as social signal
		Evangelism, missionary activity, and the spreading of religious beliefs
		Religious specialization and social power
	Social cohesion and summing up
	The costs of religion
	Concluding thoughts
	References
	Further reading
22 Fear not: religion and emotion regulation in coping with existential concerns
	Forms of coping with fear of death
	Religion and problem-focused coping with fear of death
		Belief in supernatural beings
		The afterlife and mind–body dualism
		Human uniqueness
		Summary
	Religion and emotion-focused coping with fear of death
		Selecting emotion-focused coping
			Perceived control
			Resources
		Enacting emotion-focused coping
			Beliefs
			Emotion goals
			Strategies
				Cognitive reappraisal
				Rumination
				Distraction
				Acceptance
		Summary
	Religion and coping with fear of death: reinterpreting existing findings
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
23 Existential givens, religion, and neuroscience
	Death awareness
		The neuroscience of death awareness
		Death awareness and religion
		Freedom, choice, and responsibility
		Freedom and neuroscience
		Freedom and religion
	Isolation
		Neuroscience of isolation
		Isolation and religion
	Meaning
		Religion, neuroscience, and meaning
		A goal perspective on meaning and religion
	Conclusion
	Outlook
	References
24 The existential implications of individual differences in religious defensive and growth orientations: fundamentalism, q...
	The existential function of religion
	Religious orientations: maintaining faith and managing existential concerns
		The fundamentalist orientation
		The religious quest orientation
		The conventional religious orientations
	Conclusion
	References
25 Existential therapy, religion, and mindfulness
	Introduction
	Understanding mindfulness
		Defining mindfulness and variations of mindfulness
		Research on mindfulness
	Comparison between mindfulness and existential-humanistic psychology
		Here-and-now focus
		Accepting and exploring emotions and their meaning
		Embodied meditation
	The ego and self in existential psychology and mindfulness
		Quieting the ego
		Ego, self-esteem, and self-acceptance in existential psychology and mindfulness
		The self in existential psychology
		The role of meaning
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
26 Science and religion: a rocky relationship shaped by shared psychological functions
	Science and religion: a brief history
	Science and religion: key shared functions
		Need for explanation
		Need for control
		Need for existential meaning
	Differences in processes: assumptions and biases
	Science and religion in action: morality and mortality concerns
		Morality
		Mortality
	Conclusion
	References
27 Of flesh and blood: death, creatureliness, and incarnational ambivalence toward the Divine
	Terror management and human corporeality
	Death, creatureliness, and incarnational ambivalence toward the Divine
	Dehumanization and objectification of women
	Conclusion
	References
28 Religion: more essential (and existential) nutrient than opiate for the masses
	Motivating religion
		The belief in an afterlife exorcizes death
		Religion provides global meaning and significance
		External agents are in control so we can feel free
		I believe, therefore I am
	Religion, morality, and identity
		Religion and morality
		From morality to community
		Grave questions for future research
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
29 Politics and religion: commutable, conflicting, and collaborative systems for satisfying the need for order
	Compensatory control theory
	God as a source of control and order
	Secular and sociopolitical systems as a source of control and order
	The substitutable nature of god and government
	Symbolic alignment between sociopolitical and religious sources of control and order
	Conclusion
	References
30 The paradox of faith: how existential concerns motivate both prosocial and antisocial religious behaviors
	Terror management and the motivational underpinnings of religion
	Empirical evidence for the death-denying function of pro- and anti-social religious behaviors
		Testing for the existential allure of faith
		Religious tribalism as the default response to mortality salience
		The moderating role of intrinsic religiosity
		The curious case of fundamentalism
		Who, then, follows the light?
	Can religious worldviews be deinstitutionalized?
		Changes at the societal level
			Salient prosocial norms
			Common human experiences
			Cash ≠ king
		Changes at the individual level
			Conversion
			Quest orientation
			Consciousness of mortality
	Conclusion
	References
31 Religion and health: building existential bridges
	The framework of an existential religion–health perspective
	Using the awareness of mortality to bridge religion and health
		Basic processes for managing awareness of mortality
		Terror management health model
		Death, religion, and health
	Using the search for meaning to bridge religion and health
		Meaning and health
		Religion, meaning, and health
	Using existential isolation to bridge religion and health
		Religion as a solution
		God as a bridge and ravine
	Using freedom to bridge religion and health
		Freedom and the health benefits of religion
		Freedom, religion, and health behavior change
		The burden of freedom
	Looking forward
	References
Index