The Russian Federation in Global Knowledge Warfare: Influence Operations in Europe and Its Neighbourhood (Contributions to International Relations)

Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Introduction: The Russian Federation and New Challenges of Modern Warfare
	References
Concept of Information Warfare and Foreign Policy Tools of the Russian Federation
Global Knowledge Warfare, Strategic Imagination, Uncertainty, and Fear
	1 Introduction
	2 Strategic Imagination as an Assessment Method in Global Knowledge Warfare
	3 The Role of Strategic Narratives in Global Knowledge Warfare
	4 Global Knowledge Warfare and Its Clusters
	5 Cultures of Uncertainty, Fear, and Irrational Response
	6 Knowledge Warriors and Their Weapons
	7 COVID-19 Pandemic and Global Knowledge Warfare
	8 Key Methods of Knowledge Warfare
	9 Conclusion
	References
Synthetic Media and Information Warfare: Assessing Potential Threats
	1 Introduction
	2 Information Warfare Russia Style: Reflexive Control and Epistemic Anarchy
	3 Deepfakes and the New Frontier of Digital Forgery
	4 Extended Reality and Synthetic Surroundings
	5 Virtual Influencers: Synthetic Humans Promoting Synthetic Things?
	6 Conclusion
	References
Russian Strategic Communication Towards Europe: Goals, Means and Measures
	1 Introduction
	2 What Does Russia Want in Europe?
	3 Strategic Communication and Russian Foreign Policy
	4 Three Case Studies of Russian Strategic Communication Towards Europe
		4.1 Narrative 1: The West is Irresponsible and Aggressive
		4.2 Narrative 2: Historical Break
		4.3 Narrative 3: Discord Among NATO Countries
		4.4 Narrative 4: Discord Within NATO and/or EU Countries
		4.5 Narrative 5: The US Is Dictating Solutions to European Countries
		4.6 Narrative 6: Brexit Is Part of a Transnational People’s Uprising Against Elites
		4.7 Narrative 7: The UK Is in Political Turmoil
		4.8 Narrative 8: The UK is Losing Power and Position in International Affairs
		4.9 General Conclusions from the Narrative Analysis
	5 Conclusions
	References
Mass Media Instrumentalization in Foreign Policy of States: Russian Strategic Toolset
	1 Introduction
	2 Typological Scheme: Soft Power Paradigm
		2.1 Roots
		2.2 Conception and Mechanisms
		2.3 Means of Implementation
		2.4 Goals
		2.5 Narrative Structure
	3 Typological Scheme: Information Warfare Paradigm
		3.1 Roots
		3.2 Conception and Mechanisms
		3.3 Means of Implementation
		3.4 Goals
		3.5 Narrative Structure
	4 Discussion
	References
The Russian Doctrine—A Way for the Political Elite to Maximise the Efficiency of Information Warfare
	1 Introduction
	2 The Russian Theory (Philosophy) for Waging War
		2.1 Russia is Always Right
	3 War is Forever
	4 The State Fights a War
	5 Centralisation, Coordination, and Synchronisation are Essential
	6 Russian New War-Waging System, Led by the National Defence Management Centre (NDMC)
	7 The C4I as an Enabler
	8 In Addition to the Military
	9 Conclusion
	References
Propaganda Gone Viral: A Theory of Chinese and Russian “COVID Diplomacy” in the Age of Social Media
	1 Introduction
	2 Diplomacy and Information Operations in the Age of COVID
	3 The Seeds of Distrust
	4 Science Versus Populism
	5 Cognition and Heuristics
	6 A Theory of Revisionist States’ Propaganda
	7 To Deflect, Suspect and Reject
	8 Sowing Doubt
	9 Chinese Preemptive COVID Public Diplomacy
	10 A Strategic Narrative of Abandonment
	11 Overreach in COVID Diplomacy
	12 More Targeted, but Less Precise: Moscow’s Ambitions
	13 Revisionist States and the Culture of Nihilism
	14 Conclusions
	References
Influence Operations, Hybrid Warfare and Technological Awareness
The Russian Influence Strategy in Its Contested Neighbourhood
	1 Introduction
	2 Information Warfare: Definition and Scope
	3 The Russian Information Strategy
	4 The Nationalist Discourse and the Pro-Russia Narrative
	5 Conclusions
	References
The Hybrid Arsenal of Russia’s War Against the Democratic World
	1 Introduction
	2 Crimea 2014: A Rude Awakening
	3 Fake News and the Fate of States
	4 MH17: The Deluge of Disinformation
	5 Sowing the Seeds of Discord
	6 Fighting Back
	References
Information aggression—A Battlefield of Smartphones
	1 Introduction
	2 Why the Smartphone Matters
	3 Information as Aggression?
	4 There is a Troll in My Pocket
	5 Banning as the Easy Way Out?
	6 Freedom or Security?
	7 So, Is There Nothing We Can Do?
	8 Concluding Remarks
	References
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and the International Humanitarian Law. Case Study: Russia
	1 Introduction
	2 Core Principles of IHL and Lethal UAVs
		2.1 Military Necessity
		2.2 Distinction
		2.3 Proportionality
		2.4 Preventing Unnecessary Suffering
	3 History of UAVs in Russia and Current Developments
		3.1 Class I
		3.2 Class II
		3.3 Class III
	4 Case Studies About Russian Practice
	5 Concluding Remarks
	References
Hybrid Situational Awareness Against Cyber-Attacks
	1 Introduction
	2 The Operational Environment
	3 Hybrid Situational Awareness
	4 Cyber-Attacks on Critical Infrastructures Attributed to Russia
	5 Conclusion
	References
European Union Strategy and Capabilities to Counter Hostile Influence Operations
	1 Introduction
	2 Setting the Scene
	3 The EU as an Aspiring Actor in the Information Security Domain
	4 European Endowment for Democracy
	5 European Regulators Group for Audiovisual Media Services and EUvsDisinfo
		5.1 ERGA
		5.2 EUvsDisinfo
	6 Conclusion
	References
Strategic Environment and Interpretation of History in Kremlin’s Influence Operations
Russia’s Strategic Blame Narratives: Comparative Analysis of Domestic and International Media Coverage About 5G
	1 Introduction
	2 Understanding Strategic Narratives and the Construction of Blame
		2.1 System Narratives, Identity Narratives and Policy Narratives
		2.2 Blame Narratives
	3 Background and Data
		3.1 Chinese and Huawei’s 5G Technology as a Security Threat
		3.2 Russian State-Funded Media Outlets
	4 Analysis: Discourses of Blame in Russia’s Strategic Narratives About 5G
	5 US Is Blamed for Spreading 5G-Related Misinformation
		5.1 Anglophone Media Coverage
		5.2 Russophone Media Coverage
	6 The United States Is Accused of Hypocrisy
		6.1 Anglophone Media Coverage
		6.2 Russophone Media Coverage
	7 The United States Is Being Accused of Pressuring Its Allies to Stop Them Collaborating with Chinese 5G Technology Companies
		7.1 Anglophone Media Coverage
		7.2 Russophone Media Coverage
	8 Allies Blame US for Pressuring Them to Cut Ties with Chinese 5G Technology
		8.1 Anglophone Media Coverage
		8.2 Russophone Media Coverage
	9 Discussion and Conclusions
	References
Russian Influence Campaigns Against NATO in the Baltic Region: Spread of Chaos and Divide et Impera
	1 Introduction
	2 What Are Influence Campaigns?
	3 Russia’s Influence Campaigns
	4 The Baltic Rim: Russia’s Barrier Against NATO
	5 Russian Influence Operations in the Baltic Region
		5.1 Ukraine
		5.2 Estonia
		5.3 Lithuania
		5.4 Latvia
		5.5 Sweden
		5.6 Finland
	6 Conclusion
	References
Russia in the Western Balkans: Interests and Tools of Influence
	1 Introduction
	2 The Western Balkans in the Russian Geopolitics
	3 The Power of the Church and the Protection of the Slavs
	4 The Weapon of Misinformation and Subversion
	5 The Geopolitics of Energy
	6 Conclusions
	References
Russia’s Strategy for Influence Operations Through Public Diplomacy: The Romanian Case
	1 Introduction
	2 Russia’s Public Diplomacy as an Instrument of Influence Operations on Foreign Public Opinion
	3 The Russian Centre for Science and Culture in Bucharest as Instrument of Russian Influence Operations on Romanian Society
	4 Conclusion
	References
Battles for History. ‘Combats Pour l’histoire’ as the Elements of Russian Information Warfare. Ukrainian Case
	1 Introduction
	2 Historiography
	3 History as a Weapon. Ukrainian Case
		3.1 The Heritage of Ancient Rus is Russian
		3.2 Ukrainian People Are Judeophobes
		3.3 Ukraine Is Not a State
		3.4 Divided Country
		3.5 Common History and Historical Brotherhood
		3.6 Holodomor Denial and an Apology for Stalin’s Modernization
		3.7 The Great Victory and Collaboration, Brothers and Enemies
		3.8 The Artificiality of Ukraine/Ukrainians
	4 Putin’s New History Policy
	5 How to Answer This New-Old Challenge?
	6 Conclusions
	References
Interpretation of Historical Facts in Documentary Movies About the Occupation of Lithuania in 1940 by Soviet Troops
	1 Introduction
	2 Safety as an Essential Need of Society: The Art of Survival
	3 Exploiting the Needs of Society: The Art of Persuasion
	4 Soft Power Versus Hard Power
	5 The Search for Historical Truth: Key Concepts, Institutions and Interpretation
	6 Occupation Without Mercy: A Case Study
	7 Conclusion
	References
Between History and Propaganda: Estonia and Latvia in Russian Historical Narratives
	1 Introduction
	2 Theoretical Framework
	3 Official Kremlin
	4 Academic Historiography
	5 Politicized Historical Projects
	6 Russian Media
	7 Summary
	References