The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Abbreviations......Page 9
Figures......Page 11
Tables......Page 15
Contributors......Page 17
Preface......Page 19
Past and present......Page 21
General theory of personality......Page 22
Standard (1982) RST......Page 25
Clinical neurosis......Page 28
Three systems of standard RST......Page 29
Revised (2000) RST......Page 30
Defensive distance......Page 34
A philosophical digress: utility theory......Page 37
The BAS and its parts......Page 38
BAS functions......Page 39
Sub-goal scaffolding......Page 41
Item response theory......Page 43
Basic and complex emotions......Page 44
Cognition......Page 47
Between-species and inter-individual differences......Page 49
Experimental assays......Page 50
Consciousness: what is controlling behaviour?......Page 51
Extending the late detection model: what-if simulations......Page 57
References......Page 59
2 The neuropsychology of fear and anxiety: a foundation for Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory......Page 64
Reward and punishment......Page 65
Fear and anxiety: defensive direction......Page 67
Conflict......Page 69
Defensive distance......Page 70
Goals and goal conflict......Page 74
Behavioural elicitation......Page 75
Psychological structure of the theory......Page 76
General architecture......Page 77
Anxiolytic drugs as markers for the BIS......Page 78
Periaqueductal gray......Page 80
Hypothalamus......Page 82
Amygdala......Page 83
Septo-hippocampal system......Page 84
Cingulate cortex......Page 86
Prefrontal cortex......Page 90
Behavioural approach system......Page 92
From syndrome to sensitivity: putting Humpty Dumpty back together again......Page 93
BAS, FFFS and BIS......Page 96
Conclusion......Page 101
References......Page 102
3 Animal cognition and human personality......Page 115
Fallacies: biology or cognition......Page 117
Fallacy 1: primary anthropocentrism......Page 118
Fallacy 2: cognitive anthropocentrism......Page 119
Fallacy 3: language is cognition......Page 121
Fallacy 4: cognitions are emotionally neutral......Page 124
Fallacy 5: cognitions are unconstrained......Page 125
Fallacy 6: cognitions are hardware-free......Page 126
Fallacy 7: radical behaviourism......Page 128
Fallacy 8: silent cognitions......Page 129
Fallacy 9: the cortex is the seat of cognition......Page 130
Biology and cognition......Page 131
Brain-mind relations......Page 132
Emotion and personality......Page 133
Conclusion......Page 134
References......Page 135
A time for rethinking the BAS within RST......Page 140
Challenges and opportunities created by neuroscience research......Page 142
A need for psychological and conceptual reframing?......Page 155
Psychometric issues: which trait relates to variation in BAS functioning?......Page 161
Conclusion......Page 167
References......Page 168
‘Top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ approaches to personality......Page 175
A biological approach to factor analysis......Page 177
Extraversion/neuroticism and reward/punishment sensitivity......Page 178
Psychometric refinement......Page 179
Neural systems and personality factors......Page 180
Monoamine systems and personality......Page 183
Benzodiazepine receptors, BIS and personality......Page 184
General modulation......Page 185
FFFS/BIS and BAS interactions......Page 186
Separability and dominance of systems......Page 187
Different forms of interaction......Page 188
Testing the systems......Page 190
A computational model......Page 191
Hidden complexity......Page 196
Existing RST personality measures......Page 197
Implications of revised RST for testing......Page 199
Testing specific neural modules in the defensive hierarchy......Page 200
Conclusion......Page 203
References......Page 204
6 Reinforcement sensitivity scales......Page 208
Strategies for the measurement of BIS and BAS dimensions by using scales not directly derived from RST......Page 210
Measures related to traits of anxiety and impulsivity, but not specifically designed to tap the dimensions depicted by RST......Page 211
Susceptibility to punishment scale......Page 212
Gray-Wilson personality questionnaire......Page 213
General reward and punishment expectancy scales......Page 214
BIS/BAS scales......Page 215
Appetitive motivation scale......Page 216
Comparison of questionnaires: approaches to scale development and number of traits assessed......Page 217
Reliability, score distributions and gender differences......Page 218
Validity: correlational data......Page 222
Validity: factor analyses studies......Page 224
How important to the validity of the scales are the correlations with E, N and P predicted in the RST?......Page 228
Is BAS better assessed from a multidimensional approach than a unidimensional one?......Page 229
Laboratory and social behaviour correlates of BIS and BAS scales......Page 231
To what extent are scales based on RST assumptions and other anxiety and impulsivity scales interchangeable?......Page 235
Conclusion......Page 238
References......Page 240
Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory......Page 248
Newman’s model......Page 250
Joint subsystems hypothesis......Page 252
Controversial issues in Gray’s model......Page 253
Extraversion and performance......Page 256
Cognitive functioning: checking mode......Page 257
Coping with motivational stimuli: control mode......Page 260
Performance studies dependent on the BIS......Page 268
Performance studies dependent on the BAS......Page 270
General discussion......Page 272
Conclusion......Page 274
References......Page 275
8 Psychophysiological studies......Page 281
Electroencephalogram and RST......Page 283
BIS/BAS and event-related potentials......Page 286
Autonomic activity and BIS/BAS......Page 294
Startle reflex and BIS/BAS......Page 301
Conclusion......Page 302
References......Page 303
Reinforcement sensitivity theory and mood states......Page 311
Reinforcement sensitivity theory and mood induced studies......Page 313
Implications of existing RST mood induction data for psychopathology......Page 324
Limitations in mood induction studies and future studies......Page 326
Conclusion......Page 328
References......Page 329
10 Neuro-imaging and genetics......Page 337
Molecular genetics and RST......Page 338
Methods in molecular genetics: the polymerase chain reaction......Page 339
Evidence for the validity of Gray’s RST from molecular genetics......Page 342
Genetic association studies relevant to the BIS......Page 345
Genetic association studies relevant to the BAS......Page 348
Methods in neuro-imaging studies: fMRI and PET......Page 350
fMRI studies......Page 351
PET studies......Page 355
Future perspectives......Page 356
References......Page 357
Previous psychosomatic medicine......Page 365
Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST)......Page 366
RST and disease prone emotionality......Page 368
RST and disease prone physiological reactivity......Page 369
Importance of the nature of the stressor......Page 371
BIS/BAS sensitivity and gender......Page 372
Future challenges......Page 373
Conclusion......Page 375
References......Page 376
12 RST and clinical disorders: anxiety and depression......Page 380
Structure implied by RST: a hierarchical model......Page 381
Relation between anxiety and panic......Page 383
Relation between anxiety and depression......Page 385
Arousal......Page 386
Behavioral inhibition......Page 387
Cognitive biases associated with anxiety disorders and unipolar depression......Page 388
Longitudinal studies of risk for anxiety and mood disorders......Page 395
How should RST be modified to account for the complexity of the results on cognitive biases in anxiety disorders and MDD?......Page 396
Does specific phobia essentially not involve anxiety and passive avoidance?......Page 397
How should disorder be defined?......Page 398
Should phobic stimuli be viewed as innate fear stimuli or prepared stimuli?......Page 399
What type of conflict is more central to agoraphobia: approach-avoidance or escape-avoidance?......Page 400
Do anxiolytic medications reduce attentional bias?......Page 401
What types of situations constitute conflicts that activate the BIS?......Page 402
Conclusion......Page 404
References......Page 405
RST and psychopathy: associations between psychopathy and the BAS and BIS......Page 418
Experimental evidence......Page 421
RST revisited......Page 426
Directions for future research......Page 429
Conclusion......Page 431
References......Page 432
BAS, BIS and hierarchical models of personality and temperament......Page 435
Difficulties and pitfalls linked with research on social aspects of RST......Page 436
BIS and social adjustment......Page 437
BAS and social adjustment......Page 441
Why the balance between BAS and BIS is important for social adjustment......Page 442
Moderating role of the environment and cognitive abilities......Page 443
Conclusion......Page 445
References......Page 446
15 Reinforcement sensitivity in the workplace: BIS/BAS in business......Page 451
Two approaches......Page 453
Measuring the construct......Page 454
Applications to organizational psychology......Page 455
Personality in the prediction of work performance......Page 456
What are the implications of this basic work-related finding for RST?......Page 458
Future of RST in the prediction of workplace behaviour......Page 459
Approach and avoidance in temperament......Page 460
Proximal and distal pathways and redefinition of character......Page 462
Biosocial model and performance at work......Page 465
Significance of the proposed integration of RST with the sociocognitive model......Page 466
Conclusion......Page 467
References......Page 468
Basic tenets of the original RST......Page 473
Key differences between old and new RST......Page 474
System inputs, sensitivities and outputs......Page 476
A two-system decision model......Page 477
Extending the two-system model......Page 485
A three-system decision model for ‘new’ RST......Page 489
A three-system dynamically interacting neural network model......Page 496
Conclusion......Page 498
References......Page 500
17 Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: a critique from cognitive science......Page 502
Are animal models appropriate?......Page 505
Neurophysiology and the control of behavior......Page 506
Traits as neurological constructs......Page 509
Mediators of personality effects on mood......Page 512
Fractionating negative affect......Page 514
Role of metacognition......Page 515
Conditioning and learning......Page 516
Attention and performance......Page 519
A cognitive-adaptive perspective......Page 520
Conclusion......Page 522
References......Page 523
18 The contribution of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory to personality theory......Page 528
RST1 and RST2: does it make a difference?......Page 531
Basic theory......Page 532
Biological correlates......Page 534
Are animal models appropriate for human personality?......Page 535
Can biological theories address cognitive problems?......Page 536
RST and psychopathology......Page 537
RST in the broader context......Page 538
How to measure the basic components?......Page 539
Optimal level of activation of all three systems, separately and combined......Page 541
Unresolved problems......Page 542
Conclusion......Page 543
References......Page 544
General Index......Page 548
Index of names......Page 554