The Quest for Artificial Intelligence

I Beginnings......Page 17
Dreams and Dreamers......Page 19
From Philosophy and Logic......Page 27
From Life Itself......Page 33
Neurons and the Brain......Page 34
Psychology and Cognitive Science......Page 37
Evolution......Page 43
Development and Maturation......Page 45
Automata, Sensing, and Feedback......Page 46
Statistics and Probability......Page 52
The Computer......Page 53
II Early Explorations: 1950s and 1960s......Page 71
Session on Learning Machines......Page 73
The Dartmouth Summer Project......Page 77
Mechanization of Thought Processes......Page 81
Pattern Recognition......Page 89
Character Recognition......Page 90
Perceptrons......Page 92
The MINOS Systems at SRI......Page 98
Statistical Methods......Page 102
Applications of Pattern Recognition to Aerial Reconnaissance......Page 105
The Logic Theorist and Heuristic Search......Page 113
Proving Theorems in Geometry......Page 118
The General Problem Solver......Page 121
Game-Playing Programs......Page 123
Solving Geometric Analogy Problems......Page 131
Storing Information and Answering Questions......Page 134
Semantic Networks......Page 136
Linguistic Levels......Page 141
Machine Translation......Page 146
Question Answering......Page 150
Programming Languages......Page 155
Early AI Laboratories......Page 157
Research Support......Page 160
All Dressed Up and Places to Go......Page 163
III Efflorescence: Mid-1960s to Mid-1970s......Page 167
Computer Vision......Page 169
Hints from Biology......Page 171
Recognizing Faces......Page 172
An Early Vision System......Page 173
The ``Summer Vision Project"......Page 175
Image Filtering......Page 176
Processing Line Drawings......Page 181
At MIT......Page 189
At Stanford......Page 190
Edinburgh's ``FREDDY"......Page 193
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning......Page 199
Deductions in Symbolic Logic......Page 200
The Situation Calculus......Page 202
Logic Programming......Page 203
Semantic Networks......Page 205
Scripts and Frames......Page 207
Shakey, the SRI Robot......Page 213
A*: A New Heuristic Search Method......Page 216
Robust Action Execution......Page 221
STRIPS: A New Planning Method......Page 222
Shakey's Vision Routines......Page 224
Some Experiments with Shakey......Page 227
Shakey Runs into Funding Troubles......Page 229
The Stanford Cart......Page 231
Machine Translation......Page 237
SHRDLU......Page 238
LUNAR......Page 243
Augmented Transition Networks......Page 244
GUS......Page 246
Game Playing......Page 251
The Dendral Project......Page 255
Conferences, Books, and Funding......Page 261
IV Applications and Specializations: 1970s to Early 1980s......Page 265
Speech Processing......Page 267
The Speech Understanding Study Group......Page 270
Work at BBN......Page 271
Work at CMU......Page 272
Summary and Impact of the SUR Program......Page 280
Subsequent Work in Speech Recognition......Page 281
The SRI Computer-Based Consultant......Page 285
MYCIN......Page 291
PROSPECTOR......Page 295
Other Expert Systems......Page 300
Expert Companies......Page 303
The Setting......Page 309
LIFER......Page 313
CHAT-80......Page 315
Transportable Natural Language Query Systems......Page 318
HASP/SIAP......Page 319
Shape from Shading......Page 327
Intrinsic Images......Page 329
Reasoning about Scenes......Page 333
Using Templates and Models......Page 335
DARPA's Image Understanding Program......Page 338
Boomtimes......Page 343
V ``New-Generation" Projects......Page 347
The Fifth-Generation Computer Systems Project......Page 349
The Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation......Page 354
ESPRIT......Page 355
The Strategic Computing Plan......Page 359
Major Projects......Page 362
The Pilot's Associate......Page 363
Battle Management Systems......Page 364
Autonomous Vehicles......Page 366
AI Technology Base......Page 369
Speech Recognition and Natural Language Processing......Page 370
Expert Systems......Page 372
Assessment......Page 373
VI Entr'acte......Page 379
The Mind Is Not a Machine......Page 381
The Mind Is Not a Computer......Page 383
Differences between Brains and Computers......Page 392
But Should We?......Page 393
Other Opinions......Page 398
The Combinatorial Explosion......Page 399
Complexity Theory......Page 401
A Sober Assessment......Page 402
Acknowledged Shortcomings......Page 406
The ``AI Winter"......Page 408
About Logic......Page 413
Uncertainty......Page 414
``Kludginess"......Page 416
Behavior-Based Robots......Page 417
Teleo-Reactive Programs......Page 419
Neural Networks......Page 423
Dynamical Processes......Page 424
Simulating Evolution......Page 425
Scaling Back AI's Goals......Page 429
VII The Growing Armamentarium: From the 1980s Onward......Page 433
Nonmonotonic or Defeasible Reasoning......Page 435
Qualitative Reasoning......Page 439
Description Logics......Page 441
WordNet......Page 444
Cyc......Page 446
Solving Constraint Satisfaction Problems......Page 455
Solving Problems Using Propositional Logic......Page 460
Systematic Methods......Page 461
Local Search Methods......Page 463
Representing Text as Vectors......Page 466
Latent Semantic Analysis......Page 469
Representing Probabilities in Networks......Page 475
Automatic Construction of Bayesian Networks......Page 482
Probabilistic Relational Models......Page 486
Temporal Bayesian Networks......Page 488
Machine Learning......Page 495
Memory-Based Learning......Page 496
Case-Based Reasoning......Page 498
Data Mining and Decision Trees......Page 500
Constructing Decision Trees......Page 502
Neural Networks......Page 507
The Backprop Algorithm......Page 508
NETtalk......Page 509
ALVINN......Page 510
Unsupervised Learning......Page 513
Learning Optimal Policies......Page 515
TD-GAMMON......Page 522
Other Applications......Page 523
Enhancements......Page 524
Natural Language Processing......Page 533
Grammars and Parsing Algorithms......Page 534
Statistical NLP......Page 535
Computer Vision......Page 539
Recovering Surface and Depth Information......Page 541
Tracking Moving Objects......Page 544
Hierarchical Models......Page 548
Image Grammars......Page 555
Intelligent System Architectures......Page 561
Multilayered Architectures......Page 563
The BDI Architecture......Page 569
Architectures for Groups of Agents......Page 572
Production Systems......Page 576
ACT-R......Page 578
SOAR......Page 581
VIII Modern AI: Today and Tomorrow......Page 589
Chess......Page 591
Checkers......Page 595
Other Games......Page 598
Remote Agent in Deep Space 1......Page 600
Driverless Automobiles......Page 603
Ubiquitous Artificial Intelligence......Page 615
AI at Home......Page 616
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems......Page 617
You Might Also Like…......Page 618
Computer Games......Page 619
In Medicine......Page 623
For Scheduling......Page 625
For Automated Trading......Page 626
In Business Practices......Page 627
For Recognizing Faces......Page 628
The Quest Continues......Page 633
Specialized Systems......Page 634
Broadly Applicable Systems......Page 638
Eye on the Prize......Page 646
Controversies......Page 648
How Do We Get It?......Page 649
Some Possible Consequences of HLAI......Page 652
Summing Up......Page 656