The Psychology of Women

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 6
CONTENTS......Page 13
PREFACE......Page 21
1 Introduction......Page 29
Sex and Gender......Page 31
The Extent of Social Biases......Page 32
Feminist Approaches......Page 33
Psychological Approaches to Gender Similarity and Difference......Page 36
The Emergence of the Psychology of Women as a Discipline......Page 38
The Current Status of the Psychology of Women......Page 39
The White-Privilege Concept......Page 41
Women of Color......Page 42
U.S.-Centered Nationalism......Page 47
Potential Problems and Biases in Current Research......Page 48
Designing the Study......Page 50
Interpreting the Data......Page 52
Communicating the Findings......Page 54
Critical Thinking and the Psychology of Women......Page 55
Themes of the Book......Page 56
How to Use This Book Effectively......Page 59
2 Gender Stereotypes and Other Gender Biases......Page 63
Biased Representations of Women and Men......Page 65
Gender Biases Throughout History......Page 66
Gender Biases in Religion and Mythology......Page 67
Gender Biases in Language......Page 69
Gender Biases in the Media......Page 72
The Content of Stereotypes......Page 77
Implicit Gender Stereotypes......Page 81
The Complexity of Contemporary Sexism......Page 82
Gender Discrimination in Interpersonal Interactions......Page 87
Heterosexism......Page 88
The Personal Consequences of Gender Stereotypes......Page 91
Gender Stereotypes and Cognitive Errors......Page 92
Gender Stereotypes and Behavior......Page 95
Applying Gender Stereotypes to Ourselves......Page 96
3 Infancy and Childhood......Page 102
Prenatal Sex Development......Page 104
People’s Responses to Infant Girls and Boys......Page 107
Theories of Gender Development......Page 111
Factors That Shape Gender Typing......Page 114
Parents......Page 115
Peers......Page 118
School......Page 122
The Media......Page 125
Children’s Knowledge About Gender......Page 129
Children’s Stereotypes About Activities and Occupations......Page 130
Factors Related to Children’s Gender Stereotypes......Page 133
4 Adolescence......Page 136
Puberty......Page 138
Biological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle......Page 139
The Controversial Premenstrual Syndrome......Page 141
Cultural Attitudes Toward Menstruation......Page 146
Self-Concept and Identity During Adolescence......Page 147
Self-Esteem......Page 148
Body Image and Physical Attractiveness......Page 149
Feminist Identity......Page 150
Cultural Identity......Page 152
Transgender Identity......Page 154
Young Women’s Experiences in Middle School and High School......Page 155
Early Experiences in Math and Science......Page 156
Gender Issues in Higher Education......Page 157
Career Aspirations......Page 159
Interpersonal Relationships During Adolescence......Page 160
Family Relationships......Page 161
Romantic Relationships......Page 162
5 Gender Comparisons in Cognitive Abilities and Attitudes About Achievements......Page 170
Cautions About Research on Gender Comparisons......Page 172
The Meta-Analysis Approach to Summarizing Multiple Studies......Page 175
Cognitive Abilities......Page 176
Memory Ability......Page 177
Verbal Ability......Page 179
Mathematics Ability......Page 181
Spatial Ability......Page 183
Explaining the Gender Comparisons......Page 187
Attitudes About Achievement......Page 191
Achievement Motivation......Page 192
Confidence in Your Own Achievement and Ability......Page 193
Attributions for Your Own Success......Page 196
6 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics......Page 201
Verbal Communication......Page 204
Nonverbal Communication......Page 208
Potential Explanations for Gender Differences in Communication......Page 212
Characteristics Related to Helping and Caring......Page 215
Altruism......Page 216
Empathy......Page 217
Moral Judgments About Social Relationships......Page 218
Attitudes About Social Justice......Page 219
Friendship......Page 221
Gender and Aggression: The Social Constructionist Perspective......Page 224
Comparing Physical Aggression with Relational Aggression......Page 225
Other Factors Related to Gender and Aggression......Page 226
Leadership......Page 228
Persuasion......Page 230
7 Women and Work......Page 235
Background Factors Related to Women’s Employment......Page 237
General Information About Employed Women......Page 238
Women, Welfare, and TANF......Page 239
Discrimination in Hiring Patterns......Page 240
Discrimination in Salaries......Page 244
Discrimination in Promotions......Page 247
Other Kinds of Treatment Discrimination......Page 248
Discrimination Against Lesbians in the Workplace......Page 249
What to Do About Treatment Discrimination......Page 250
Women’s Experiences in Selected Occupations......Page 252
Employment in Traditionally Female Occupations......Page 253
Employment in Traditionally Male, High-Prestige Professions......Page 256
Employment in Traditionally Male Blue-Collar Jobs......Page 258
Why Are Women Scarce in Certain Occupations?......Page 259
Marriage......Page 261
Children......Page 265
Personal Adjustment......Page 267
8 Love Relationships......Page 272
The Ideal Romantic Partner......Page 274
Explanations for Gender Differences in Patterns of Preference......Page 278
Characteristics of Heterosexual Love Relationships......Page 280
Breaking Up......Page 282
Marriage and Divorce......Page 283
Marital Satisfaction......Page 284
Distribution of Power in Marriages......Page 286
Marriage and Women of Color......Page 287
Divorce......Page 289
Lesbians and Bisexual Women......Page 292
The Psychological Adjustment of Lesbians......Page 293
Characteristics of Lesbian Relationships......Page 294
Lesbian Women of Color......Page 297
Legal Status of Lesbian Relationships......Page 298
Bisexual Women......Page 299
The Fluidity of Female Sexual Orientation......Page 300
Theoretical Explanations About Sexual Orientation......Page 301
Single Women......Page 305
Characteristics of Single Women......Page 306
Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Single......Page 307
Single Women of Color......Page 308
9 Sexuality......Page 312
Theoretical Perspectives......Page 314
Female Sexual Anatomy......Page 315
Sexual Responses......Page 316
Sexual Desire......Page 318
Attitudes and Knowledge About Sexuality......Page 320
Attitudes About Female and Male Sexuality......Page 321
Sex Education......Page 322
Sexual Behavior and Sexual Disorders......Page 325
Sexual Behavior in Heterosexual Adolescents......Page 326
Sexual Behavior in Heterosexual Adults......Page 327
Communication About Sexuality......Page 328
Lesbians and Sexuality......Page 329
Older Women and Sexuality......Page 330
Sexual Disorders......Page 331
Birth Control Methods......Page 334
Emergency Contraception: A New Option......Page 335
Who Uses Birth Control?......Page 336
Obstacles to Using Birth Control......Page 338
Contraception and Family Planning in Developing Countries......Page 339
Abortion and Other Alternatives......Page 340
10 Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Motherhood......Page 346
Physical Reactions During Pregnancy......Page 348
Emotional Reactions During Pregnancy......Page 349
Attitudes Toward Pregnant Women......Page 352
Employment During Pregnancy......Page 353
The Biology of Childbirth......Page 354
Social Factors Affecting the Childbirth Experience......Page 356
Alternative Approaches to Childbirth......Page 357
Stereotypes About Motherhood......Page 359
The Reality of Motherhood......Page 360
Motherhood and Women of Color......Page 363
Lesbian Mothers......Page 364
Breast Feeding......Page 366
Postpartum Disturbances......Page 367
Employment Following Childbirth......Page 369
Deciding Whether to Have Children......Page 370
Infertility......Page 373
11 Women and Physical Health......Page 378
Biases Against Women......Page 381
Gender Comparisons in Life Expectancy......Page 383
How Social Class Influences U.S. Women’s Health......Page 384
Health Issues for Women in Developing Countries......Page 385
Cardiovascular Disease, Breast Cancer, and Other Specific Health Problems......Page 386
Background Information on Disability Studies......Page 394
Education and Work Patterns of Women with Disabilities......Page 395
Personal Relationships of Women with Disabilities......Page 396
Background Information on AIDS......Page 398
Medical Aspects of HIV and AIDS......Page 399
Psychological Aspects of HIV and AIDS......Page 400
Preventing AIDS......Page 401
Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases......Page 403
Smoking......Page 405
Alcohol Abuse......Page 406
Abuse of Other Substances......Page 408
12 Women and Psychological Disorders......Page 412
Depression......Page 414
Explanations for the Gender Difference in Depression......Page 415
The Culture of Thinness......Page 422
Body Weight and Dieting......Page 424
Eating Disorders......Page 425
Treating Psychological Disorders in Women......Page 429
Psychotherapy and Sexism......Page 430
Psychotherapy and Social Class......Page 431
Psychotherapy with Women of Color......Page 432
Traditional Therapies and Women......Page 436
Feminist Therapy......Page 439
13 Violence Against Women......Page 444
Sexual Harassment......Page 446
Why Is Sexual Harassment an Important Issue?......Page 448
Women’s Reactions to Being Sexually Harassed......Page 449
What to Do About Sexual Harassment......Page 450
Sexual Assault and Rape......Page 453
How Often Does Rape Occur?......Page 454
Acquaintance Rape......Page 455
The Role of Alcohol and Drugs......Page 456
Women’s Reactions to Rape......Page 457
Fear of Rape......Page 459
The Public’s Attitudes About Rape......Page 461
Child Sexual Abuse......Page 463
The Prevention of Sexual Assault and Rape......Page 465
The Abuse of Women......Page 469
How Often Does the Abuse of Women Occur?......Page 471
Characteristics Related to Abusive Relationships......Page 472
Myths About the Abuse of Women......Page 474
Reducing Intimate Partner Violence......Page 476
Society’s Response to the Problem of Abuse......Page 477
14 Women and Older Adulthood......Page 482
Attitudes Toward Older Women......Page 484
Older Women and the Media......Page 485
The Double Standard of Aging......Page 486
Cross-Cultural Views of Older Women......Page 489
Planning for Retirement......Page 490
Adjusting to Retirement......Page 491
Financial Issues......Page 492
Physical Changes During Menopause......Page 493
Why Hormone Replacement Therapy Is No Longer Common......Page 494
Contemporary Attitudes About Menopause......Page 495
Women’s Psychological Reactions to Menopause......Page 496
Family Relationships......Page 498
The Death of an Intimate Partner and Coping with Bereavement......Page 501
Older Women of Color......Page 502
Satisfaction with Life......Page 503
Rewriting Our Life Stories......Page 504
Final Words......Page 506
15 Moving Onward......Page 510
The Increased Number of Women in Psychology......Page 512
Increasing the Multicultural Research in Psychology of Women......Page 513
Latina/o Feminists......Page 514
Asian American Feminists......Page 515
Profeminist Approaches......Page 517
Religious Approaches......Page 519
Women’s Studies Courses in North America......Page 520
The Women’s Movement in North America......Page 522
The Women’s Movement Worldwide......Page 523
Helping to Change the Future: Becoming an Activist......Page 525
REFERENCES......Page 529
NAME INDEX......Page 609
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 625