The Psychology of Language: From Data To Theory

Book Cover......Page 1
Half-Title......Page 2
Title......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
“It is nothing other than words which has made us human”(Pavlov, 1927/1960)......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 13
How to Use This Book......Page 16
Section A  Introduction......Page 19
INTRODUCTION......Page 20
WHAT IS LANGUAGE AND HOW DID IT ORIGINATE?......Page 22
How did language originate?......Page 24
THE HISTORY AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS......Page 28
A brief history of psycholinguistics......Page 29
The “cognitive science” approach......Page 31
The methods of modern psycholinguistics......Page 35
THEMES AND CONTROVERSIES IN MODERN PSYCHOLINGUISTICS......Page 36
How modular is the language system?......Page 38
Does the language system make use of rules?......Page 40
What can studies of brain damage and language tell us?......Page 41
FURTHER READING......Page 43
HOW TO DESCRIBE SPEECH SOUNDS......Page 46
Vowels......Page 50
Consonants......Page 51
 Higher-level structure of sounds......Page 52
The linguistic theory of Chomsky......Page 53
Describing syntax and phrase-structure grammar......Page 54
Transformations......Page 58
Surface and deep structure......Page 59
Principles and parameters theory......Page 60
Minimalism......Page 61
The formal power of grammars: Automata theory......Page 62
SUMMARY......Page 64
FURTHER READING......Page 65
Section B  The Biological and Developmental Bases of Language......Page 66
DO ANIMALS HAVE LANGUAGE?......Page 67
Animal communication systems......Page 68
Design features......Page 69
Can we teach language to animals?......Page 70
Washoe......Page 72
Evaluation of early attempts to teach language to apes......Page 75
Kanzi......Page 78
Evaluation of work on teaching apes language......Page 79
Why is the issue so important?......Page 80
Sex differences and language......Page 81
More on the localization of function: Broca and Wernicke......Page 82
The Wernicke-Geschwind model......Page 83
Is there a critical period for language development?......Page 84
Evidence from the development of lateralization......Page 86
Evidence from studies of lateralization in very young children......Page 87
Evidence from second language acquisition......Page 88
What happens if children are deprived of linguistic input during the critical period?......Page 89
Evaluation of the critical period hypothesis......Page 92
THE COGNITIVE BASIS OF LANGUAGE: THE COGNITION HYPOTHESIS......Page 93
Language development in children with learning difficulties......Page 94
Evaluation of the cognition hypothesis......Page 95
The language development of blind and deaf children......Page 96
Visually impaired children......Page 97
Hearing-impaired children......Page 99
THE SOCIAL BASIS OF LANGUAGE......Page 100
Turn-taking in early conversation......Page 101
Disorders of the social use of language......Page 102
The interdependence of language and thought: Vygotsky......Page 103
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis......Page 104
Anthropological evidence......Page 105
Grammatical differences between languages......Page 106
Indirect effects of language on cognition......Page 107
Number systems......Page 108
Colour coding and memory for colour......Page 109
Evaluation of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis......Page 111
SUMMARY......Page 112
FUTHER READING......Page 113
INTRODUCTION......Page 116
THE DRIVING FORCES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT......Page 118
Learning theory......Page 119
The role of child-directed speech......Page 122
Evaluation of the language acquisition device......Page 125
Linguistic universals......Page 126
Genetic linguistics......Page 128
Formal approaches to language learning......Page 129
More general innate accounts......Page 130
Problems with innate accounts of language acquisition......Page 131
Speech perception in infancy......Page 132
Babbling......Page 134
Output simplification......Page 135
SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT......Page 136
The emergence of early words......Page 137
Constraints on learning names for things......Page 138
Other solutions to the mapping problem......Page 139
Errors in the early representation of meaning......Page 140
Over-extensions and under-extensions......Page 141
Theoretical accounts of over- and under-extensions......Page 142
The contrastive hypothesis......Page 143
The later development of meaning......Page 144
EARLY SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT......Page 145
Are syntactic categories innate?......Page 146
Distributional analysis......Page 148
Two-word grammars......Page 149
Semantic approaches to early syntactic development......Page 150
Evaluation on work on early syntactic development......Page 151
Later syntactic development......Page 152
Verb inflections: Acquiring the past tense......Page 153
Cross-linguistic differences......Page 155
SUMMARY......Page 156
SOME QUESTION TO THINK ABOUT......Page 157
FUTHER READING......Page 158
BILINGUALISM......Page 160
The bilingual lexicon: How do we translate between languages?......Page 162
Bilingualism and aphasia......Page 163
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION......Page 164
How can we make second language acquisition easier?......Page 166
SUMMARY......Page 167
FURTHER READING......Page 168
Section C Word Recognition......Page 169
INTRODUCTION......Page 170
Studying eye movements in reading......Page 171
 Reaction time and other measures......Page 173
Interfering with identification......Page 174
Form-based priming......Page 175
Frequency, familiarity, and age of acquisition......Page 176
Length effects......Page 177
Word-nonword differences......Page 178
Other factors that affect word recognition......Page 179
Attentional processes in visual word recognition......Page 180
Further evidence for a two-process priming model......Page 181
Summary......Page 182
Do different tasks give different results?......Page 183
The locus of the frequency effect......Page 184
What is the relation between word recognition and object recognition?......Page 185
Types of “semantic” priming......Page 186
Does sentence context have any effect on visual word recognition?......Page 188
Summary of meaning-based priming studies......Page 190
MORPHOLOGY: PROCESSING COMPLEX WORDS......Page 191
Forster’s autonomous serial search model......Page 192
The logogen model......Page 194
Problems with the original logogen model......Page 195
Interactive activation models of word recognition......Page 196
Comparison of models......Page 198
Early work on lexical ambiguity......Page 199
Early experiments on processing lexical ambiguity......Page 200
Swinney’s (1979) experiment......Page 202
The effects of meaning frequency and prior context......Page 203
Evaluation of work on lexical ambiguity......Page 206
SUMMARY......Page 207
FURTHER READING......Page 208
The writing system......Page 210
A PRELIMINARY MODEL OF READING......Page 211
The pseudohomophone effect......Page 213
More on reading nonwords......Page 214
Word processing......Page 215
Pronunciation neighbourhoods......Page 216
The role of sound in accessing meaning: Phonological mediation......Page 217
Silent reading and inner speech......Page 218
Does speed reading work?......Page 219
Evaluation of experiments on normal reading......Page 220
Surface dyslexia......Page 221
Phonological dyslexia......Page 222
Deep dyslexia......Page 224
Summary of research on deep dyslexia......Page 225
Acquired dyslexia in other languages......Page 226
The revised dual-route model......Page 228
Connectionist models......Page 230
Seidenberg and McClelland (1989)......Page 231
The revised connectionist model: PMSP......Page 233
Modelling surface dyslexia......Page 234
PSMP: Exploring semantic involvement in reading......Page 235
Modelling deep dyslexia......Page 236
“Normal” reading development......Page 239
Phonological awareness......Page 243
Learning to spell......Page 245
Developmental dyslexia......Page 246
Are there subtypes of developmental dyslexia?......Page 247
How can we improve the reading skills of people with developmental dyslexia?......Page 249
SUMMARY......Page 250
SOME QUESTIONS TO THINK ABOUT......Page 251
FUTHER READING......Page 252
RECOGNIZING SPEECH......Page 253
Acoustic signals and phonetic segments: How do we segment speech?......Page 254
Categorical perception......Page 256
What is the nature of the prelexical code?......Page 257
What is the role of context in identifying sounds?......Page 258
Context effects in word recognition......Page 261
MODELS OF SPEECH RECOGNITION......Page 263
The cohort model of word recognition......Page 264
Experimental tests of the cohort model......Page 266
Lexical neighbourhoods......Page 267
TRACE......Page 268
Comparison of models of spoken word recognition......Page 275
SUMMARY......Page 276
SOME QUESTIONS TO THINK ABOUT......Page 277
FUTHER READING......Page 278
Section D  Meaning and Beyond......Page 279
INTRODUCTION......Page 280
COPING WITH STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY......Page 282
Psycholinguistic tests of Chomsky’s linguistic theory......Page 284
Problems with the psychological interpretation of transformational grammar......Page 285
What size are the units of parsing?......Page 286
Two early accounts of parsing......Page 288
Two models of parsing......Page 290
Evidence for autonomy in syntactic processing......Page 291
Evidence for interaction in syntactic processing......Page 294
Cross-linguistic differences in attachment......Page 300
 Other models of parsing......Page 301
Processing syntactic-category ambiguity......Page 303
GAPS, TRACES, AND UNBOUNDED DEPENDENCIES......Page 305
The comprehension abilities of agrammatic aphasics......Page 307
Are content and function words processed differently?......Page 309
SUMMARY......Page 310
SOME QUESTIONS TO THINK ABOUT......Page 311
FURTHER READING......Page 312
INTRODUCTION......Page 313
SEMANTIC NETWORKS......Page 316
The sentence verification task......Page 317
Problems with the Collins and Quillian model......Page 318
Revisions to the semantic network model......Page 319
SEMANTIC FEATURES......Page 320
Early decompositional theories: Katz and Fodor......Page 321
Sentence verification and feature list theories......Page 322
Evaluation of decompositional theories......Page 323
 Is semantic decomposition obligatory?......Page 325
Prototype theories......Page 327
 Instance theories......Page 330
Evaluation of work on classification......Page 331
COMBINING CONCEPTS......Page 332
PROCESSING FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE......Page 333
How many semantic systems are there?......Page 335
Evaluation of multiple-stores models......Page 336
Category-specific disorders and methodological problems......Page 338
Modality-specific and category-specific effects......Page 340
Challenges to the sensory-functional theory......Page 341
Difficulties with picture naming......Page 342
Semantic microfeatures......Page 345
Explaining language loss in PAD: The semantic microfeature loss hypothesis......Page 346
Modelling category-specific disorders in dementia......Page 347
Latent semantic analysis......Page 348
SUMMARY......Page 349
FURTHER READING......Page 350
INTRODUCTION......Page 352
MEMORY FOR TEXT AND INFERENCES......Page 354
Importance......Page 355
What are the effects of prior knowledge?......Page 356
Inferences......Page 359
When are inferences made?......Page 360
Practical implications of research on inferences......Page 363
REFERENCE, COREFERENCE, AND AMBIGUITY......Page 364
How do we resolve anaphoric ambiguity?......Page 365
Accessibility......Page 367
The given-new contract......Page 368
Propositional network models of representing text......Page 369
Evaluation of propositional network models......Page 370
Story grammars......Page 371
Schema-based theories......Page 372
Scripts......Page 374
Mental models......Page 375
Kintsch’s construction-integration model......Page 376
Evaluation of the construction-integration model......Page 377
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN COMPREHENSION SKILLS......Page 379
How to become a better reader......Page 380
PRAGMATICS......Page 381
Speech acts: Austin and Searle......Page 382
How to run a conversation: Grice’s maxims......Page 384
THE STRUCTURE OF CONVERSATION......Page 385
THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF TEXT AND DISCOURSE PROCESSING......Page 386
SUMMARY......Page 387
FUTHER READING......Page 389
Section E  Production and Other Aspects of Language......Page 391
INTRODUCTION......Page 392
SPEECH ERRORS......Page 394
SYNTACTIC PLANNING......Page 396
Evidence for Garrett’s model of speech production......Page 397
Evaluation of Garrett’s model......Page 398
Syntactic persistence......Page 399
Coping with dependencies: Number agreement......Page 401
Syntactic planning: In chunks or incremental?......Page 402
How many stages are there in lexicalization?......Page 403
Evidence from speech errors......Page 404
Experimental evidence......Page 405
Evidence from the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon......Page 406
Is lexicalization interactive?......Page 408
The time course of lexicalization: Discrete or cascaded processing?......Page 409
Is there feedback in lexicalization?......Page 412
The interactive activation model of lexicalization......Page 413
Evaluation of work on lexicalization......Page 414
PHONOLOGICAL ENCODING......Page 416
THE ANALYSIS OF HESITATIONS......Page 418
Pausing before individual words......Page 419
Pauses and sentence planning......Page 420
Evaluation of research on pauses......Page 421
Broca’s aphasia......Page 422
Comparison of Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias......Page 423
Explanations of agrammatism......Page 424
Jargon aphasia......Page 426
Semantic anomia......Page 427
Evaluation of anomia research......Page 428
Connectionist modelling of aphasia......Page 429
Evaluation of the contribution of aphasia research to models of normal processing......Page 431
WRITING AND AGRAPHIA......Page 432
SUMMARY......Page 433
FURTHER READING......Page 435
INTRODUCTION......Page 437
Differences between visual and spoken word recognition and comprehension......Page 438
Experimental data......Page 439
Neuropsychological data relevant to lexical architecture and a model......Page 440
LANGUAGE AND SHORT-TERM MEMORY......Page 444
Short-term verbal memory and lexical processing......Page 445
Are there separate input and output phonological buffers?......Page 446
Working memory and parsing......Page 447
Evaluation of work on language and memory......Page 448
SUMMARY......Page 449
FURTHER READING......Page 450
THEMES IN PSYCHOLINGUISTICS REVISITED......Page 451
SOME GROWTH AREAS?......Page 454
CONCLUSION......Page 455
FURTHER READING......Page 456
INTERACTIVE ACTIVATION MODELS......Page 457
Basic equations of the interactive activation model......Page 458
BACK-PROPAGATION......Page 459
FURTHER READING......Page 461
Thematic role assignment......Page 471
References......Page 472
Author index......Page 547
Subject index......Page 566