The Power of Ritual in Prehistory: Secret Societies and Origins of Social Complexity

The Power of Ritual in Prehistory: Secret Societies and Origins of Social Complexity
Contents
List of Figures
Preface and Acknowledgments
1 The Secret
	WHY ARE SECRET SOCIETIES IMPORTANT?
	WHAT IS THE SECRET?
	BEHIND THE SECRET DOOR: A DEFINITION
	TRIBAL INITIATIONS, SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS, ORIGINS, AND GRAY AREAS
	ORIGINS
	CLASSIFICATIONS
	GENERAL CONTEXTS
	MOTIVATIONS
	KEY ISSUES
		Social Integration vs. Competition and Division
		The Power of Belief vs. the Power of Power
		The Use of Terror and Human Sacrifi ce
		Roles in Emerging Complexity
		Antiquity
		Identifying Secret Societies Archaeologically
		How to Defi ne Secret Societies or Variants
		Auxiliary Characteristics
	HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
Part I: The New World
2 The Complex Hunter/Gatherers of the American Northwest
	INTRODUCTION
		Similarities with California
		Origins
	ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
		Core Features
			Motives and Dynamics
			Wealth Acquisition (see also “Membership Fees”)
			Political Connections
		Tactics
			Ideology and Control of Esoteric Knowledge
			Benefits and Threats to Community Well- being
			Exclusiveness and Ranking
			Membership Fees
			Public Displays of Power and Wealth
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Enforcement
			Cannibalism
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Secret Society Structures and Settlement Patterns
				Village Locations
				Remote Locations
			Burials
			Cross-cutting Kinship and Community Relationships (Regional Organizations)
				Kin Groups
				Regional Networks
			Initiate Marking
			Power Animals
			Number of Societies in Communities
			Number of Members, Proportion of Population
			Sex
			Age of Initiates
			Feasts
			Frequency
3 California
	INTRODUCTION
		General Kuksu Characteristics
		Age, Origin, and Dynamics of Cults
	ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
		Core Features
			Motives and Dynamics
			Sources of Wealth
			Political Connections
		Tactics
			Ideology
			Esoteric Knowledge
			Conferring of the “Shaman” Title on All Members: The Emergence of Priestly Roles
			Benefits and Threats to the Community
			Exclusivity and Ranking
			Offi ces and Roles
			Membership Fees
			Public Displays of Power and Wealth
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Enforcement
			Cannibalism and Human Sacrifi ce
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Structures and Activity Locations
				Southern California
				Central and Northern California
			Burials
			Marking of Initiates
			Power Animals
			Number of Societies in Communities
			Number of Members and Proportion of Population
			Sex
			Age of Initiates
			Feasting
			Frequency of Events
4 The American Southwest and Mesoamerica
	INTRODUCTION
		Origins
		Explanatory Models
	ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
		Core Features
			Motives and Dynamics
			Sources of Wealth
			Relation to Politics
		Tactics
			Ideology
			Benefi ts and Threats to Communities
			Exclusivity
			Hierarchies
			Roles
			Public Displays
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Enforcement
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Structures and Ritual Landscapes
			Cross-cutting Kinship and Regional Organization
			Power Animals
			Number of Societies
			Proportion of Population
			Sex
			Age and Frequency
			Feasts
	MESOAMERICA: COFRADIAS AND THE CARGO
		Caves
5 Plains Secret Societies
	INTRODUCTION
		General Characteristics of Plains Societies
	ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
		Motives and Dynamics
		Political Connections
		Wealth Acquisition
		Tactics
			Ideology
			Esoteric Knowledge and Power
			Conferring of the “Shaman” Title
			Benefits and Threats to the Community
			Exclusiveness
			Offices and Roles
			Membership Fees
			Public Displays
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Enforcement
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Secret Society Structures and Activity Locations
			Caves
			Burials
			Cross-cutting of Kinship Groups
			Regional Organization
			Power Animals and Regional Art Motifs
			Number of Societies
			Proportion of Population and Numbers of Members
			Sex
			Age of Initiates
			Feasts
			Frequency of Events
6 The Eastern Woodlands and Others
	THE MIDEWIWIN “SOCIETY OF SHAMANS,” AKA THE “GRAND MEDICINE SOCIETY”
		Introduction
		Core Features
			Motives and Dynamics
			Wealth Acquisition
			Political Connections
			Tactics
				Ideology and Esoteric Knowledge
				Benefits and Threats to Communities
				Exclusive Membership, Roles, Fees, and Hierarchies
				Public Displays of Power and Wealth
				Sacred Ecstatic Experiences, Human Sacrifi ce, and Cannibalism
				Enforcement
			Material Aspects
				Paraphernalia
				Structures and Activity Locations
				Burials
				Cross-cutting Kinship
				Regional Organization
				Power Animals
				Number of Societies
				Proportion of Population and Numbers of Members
				Sex
				Age of Initiates
				Feasting
				Frequency of Major Ceremonies
	ALASKA
Part II: The Old World
7 Oceania
	AUSTRALIA
	POLYNESIA
	THE AINU
	MELANESIA: INTRODUCTION
		Secret societies or not?
		Characteristics and Distribution
	ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
		Core Features
			Motives and Dynamics
			Sources of Wealth
			Political Connections
		Tactics
			Ideology
			Esoteric Knowledge
			Exclusivity
			Initiation Costs
			Hierarchies
			Community Benefits or Threats
			Public Displays of Power and Wealth
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Enforcement
			Human Sacrifices and Cannibalism
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Structures and Activity Areas
				Dancing Grounds
				Caves
			Treatment of the Dead
			Cross-cutting Kinship and Regional Organization
			Power Animals and Regional Art Styles
			Number of Societies
			Proportion of Population
			Age
			Sex
			Feasts
			Frequency
8 Chiefdoms in Central Africa
	INTRODUCTION TO CHIEFLY SECRET SOCIETIES
		Dynamics and Origins
		Differences with Other Secret Societies
		Core Features
			Motives
		Tactics
			Ideology
			Benefits or Threats to Communities
			Ranks and Roles
			Public Displays
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Enforcement
			Cannibalism
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Structures
			Cross-cutting Kinship and Regional Organization
			Power Animals
			Proportion of Population
			Sex
			Age
			Feasts
	SUMMARY
9 West Africa
	INTRODUCTION
	ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
		Core Features
			Motives and Dynamics
			Sources of Wealth
			Political Connections
		Tactics
			Ideology
			Community Benefits and Threats
			Esoteric Knowledge
			Untitled
			Initiation Costs
			Hierarchies and Roles
			Public Display of Powers and Wealth
			Sacred Ecstatic Experiences
			Marking Initiates: Scarification
			Enforcement
			Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism
		Material Aspects
			Paraphernalia
			Structures and Activity Locations
			Treatment of the Dead
			Cross-cutting Kinship Organization
			Regional Organization
			Power Animals
			Number of Societies
			Proportion of Population
			Sex
			Age
			Feasts
			Frequency
Part III: Implications for Archaeology
10 Archaeological Applications
	MATERIAL PATTERNS
		Transegalitarian Societies
		Surpluses
		Special Structures Used for Rituals within or near Communities
		Remote Locations
		Numbers of Special Structures
		Ritual Paraphernalia
		Power Animal Iconography
		Interaction Spheres
		Art Traditions
		Feasting
		Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism
		Esoteric Knowledge
		Ecstatic States
		Age and Sex
		Special Burials
	CASE STUDIES
		Europe and the Near East
			The Middle Paleolithic
			The Upper Paleolithic
			European Neolithic and Bronze Ages
		The Near East
			The Late Epipaleolithic
			Prepottery Neolithic
			The Egalitarian Question
			Violence
			Lime Plaster Floors and Destruction
			Causal Models
			The Role of Ritual
		Southwestern United States
			Caves
			Shrines
			Great Houses
			Causal Models
		California and the Northwest Coast
		Eastern United States
		Mesoamerica
		South America
		The Far East and Micronesia
	SUMMARY
11 Conclusions
	COMMON SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PATTERNS
		Political Influence
		Terror
		Use of Ecstasy
		Binding Members
		Exclusivity and Cross-cutting Social Group
		Motives and the Promotion of Self-interests
	IDEOLOGICAL PATTERNS
		Acquiescence
		Morality of Leaders as Anti-social or Above Norms
	ECONOMIC PATTERNS: SOURCES OF SUPPORT
	OTHER FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
		Advertising
		Iconography
	DYNAMICS AND CULTURAL CHANGE
		Regional Networks
	GENERAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH SECRET SOCIETIES DEVELOPED AND SPREAD
	MAJOR THEORETICAL ISSUES
		The Power of Belief and Ritual
		Communitarian versus Aggrandizer Models
	STEPPING STONES TO ESTABLISHING INSTITUTIONAL RELIGIONS?
	STEPPING STONES TO ESTABLISHING STATE-LEVEL POLITICAL SYSTEMS?
		Constraints
		Regional Organization
		Archaeological Instances
		Subsequent Developments
	PILGRIMAGE MODELS FOR RITUAL CENTERS
		Types of Pilgrimages
		Networking and Mutual Help Relationships
		Creation of Tribal or Group Identity
		Territorial Maintenance
		Acquisition of Power
		Livelihood
		General Economic Benefi ts
		Discussion
		Amphictyonies
	CONCLUSIONS
References
Index