The Philosophy of Biology

The Philosophy of Biology......Page 1
CONTENTS......Page 6
INTRODUCTION......Page 10
PART I ADAPTATION......Page 12
Introduction to Part I......Page 13
1 Adaptation: Current Usages......Page 16
References......Page 21
2 Universal Darwinism......Page 23
Adaptive Complexity as a Diagnostic Character of Life......Page 24
Use and disuse......Page 26
Inheritance of acquired characters......Page 28
Theory 3. Direct Induction by the Environment......Page 29
Theory 4. Saltationism......Page 31
Theory 5. Random Evolution......Page 38
Theory 6. Direction (Order) Imposed on Random Variation by Natural Selection......Page 40
Other Topics for A Future Science of Universal Darwinism......Page 41
References......Page 43
3 The Leibnizian Paradigm......Page 46
References......Page 58
II. Two Meanings of Adaptation......Page 60
IV. The Current Need for a Concept of Exaptation......Page 63
A. Feathers and Flight-Sequential Exaptation in the Evolution of Birds......Page 65
B. Bone as Storage and Support......Page 66
C. The Evolution of Mammalian Lactation......Page 67
D. Sexual 'Mimicry' in Hyenas......Page 68
E. The Uses of Repetitive DNA......Page 70
B. Primary Exaptations and Secondary Adaptations......Page 72
C. The Sources of Exaptation......Page 73
E. Process and State-of-being......Page 74
VII. Conclusion......Page 75
References......Page 77
Evolutionary forces and a Newtonian Analogy......Page 80
Concluding Comments......Page 92
References......Page 93
PART II DEVELOPMENT......Page 95
Introduction to Part II......Page 96
References......Page 98
I. Introduction......Page 100
II. Constraints as Acting on Adaptation......Page 103
III. Constraints as Acting on Organic Form......Page 105
IV. Two Approaches to Phyllotaxy......Page 109
V. How Form Relates to Adaptation......Page 113
VI. Conclusions......Page 118
References......Page 121
7 Developmental Systems and Evolutionary Explanation......Page 124
I. Innateness, Genetic Information, Other Confusions......Page 125
II. Taking Development Seriously......Page 129
III. Individuating Developmental Systems......Page 131
IV. Developmental Systems and Extended Phenotypes......Page 133
V. What is Replicated in Development?......Page 136
VI. Individuating Developmental Processes......Page 137
VII. Type and Token in Developmental Processes......Page 142
VIII. What is Replicated in Evolution?......Page 144
IX. Selection and Competition in Developmental Process Evolution......Page 145
X. Implications for 'Cultural Evolution'......Page 147
XI. Conclusion......Page 149
References......Page 150
PART III UNITS OF SELECTION......Page 153
Introduction to Part III......Page 154
References......Page 157
8 The Return of the Gene......Page 158
Sober's Case......Page 160
Causal Uniformity......Page 162
The Causal Powers of Alleles......Page 165
Do Alleles Have Effects?......Page 166
Visibility......Page 170
III. Genes and Generality......Page 172
References......Page 179
Genotypes and Phenotypes......Page 181
Replicators and Interactors......Page 182
Levels of Selection......Page 185
A Hierarchy of Interactors......Page 190
A Hierarchy of Replicators?......Page 195
Behaviour and Selection......Page 197
Concluding Remarks......Page 199
References......Page 200
II. Back to Basics......Page 203
III. Replicators and Interactors......Page 205
IV. The Analysis of Variance......Page 208
V. The Pattern of Variation in Fitness......Page 213
VI. Screening-Off......Page 214
VII. On Whether Genic Selectionism is Both Substantive and Plausible......Page 217
VIII. Common Fate......Page 218
IX. Realism, Pluralism, and Conventionalism......Page 221
X. Concluding Remarks......Page 222
References......Page 223
PART IV FUNCTION......Page 226
Introduction to Part IV......Page 227
References......Page 230
I. Introduction......Page 231
II. Adaptation and Selected Effect Functions......Page 234
III. Functional Anatomy and Causal Role Functions......Page 235
IV. Criticisms of Causal Role Function......Page 240
V. The Eliminability of Causal Role Functions......Page 249
VI. Applicability of Selected Effect Function to Research in Functional Anatomy......Page 250
VII. Research Programmes in Which Causal Role Function is Central......Page 255
VIII. Conclusion......Page 257
References......Page 258
I......Page 262
II......Page 263
III......Page 265
IV......Page 267
V......Page 274
VI......Page 277
VII......Page 281
References......Page 282
I. Twenty Years......Page 284
II. Wright's Two Advances......Page 285
Lineages......Page 286
Cummins Functions......Page 288
IV. False Unity......Page 289
References......Page 296
PART V SPECIES......Page 297
Introduction to Part V......Page 298
References......Page 301
Individuality......Page 303
Integration......Page 305
Problems with Application of Individuality to Species......Page 306
Pluralism......Page 308
Grouping versus Ranking......Page 310
An Alternative Concept of Species......Page 312
Monophyly......Page 315
 A hypothetical cladogram showing three named  species. Synapomorphies are shown as  cross-bars; aut.........Page 318
References......Page 319
Introduction......Page 322
Monophyly......Page 324
Individuality......Page 326
Cohesion......Page 327
Systems......Page 329
Phylogenetic Systematics......Page 333
Species......Page 336
Species Concepts Based on Interbreeding......Page 337
Species Concepts Based on Monophyly......Page 340
Conclusions......Page 345
References......Page 347
I. Introduction......Page 351
II. The Case for Species Pluralism......Page 352
III. Criticisms of Pluralism......Page 359
The Communication Objection......Page 360
The No Criteria Objection......Page 361
IV Species Pluralism and Species of Pluralism......Page 365
References......Page 369
PART VI HUMAN NATURE......Page 372
Introduction to Part VI......Page 373
Reference......Page 375
17 Science and Myth......Page 376
18 On Human Nature......Page 385
I. Universality and Variability......Page 387
II. Potentiality and Normality......Page 391
III. Conclusion......Page 396
References......Page 399
19 Gender and Science: Origin, History, and Politics......Page 400
I. Gender and Science......Page 401
II. Women, Sex, and Gender......Page 404
III. Gender in Science......Page 407
IV. Still to be Done......Page 411
References......Page 413
20 Essentialism, Women, and War: Protesting too Much, Protesting too Little......Page 416
The Argument......Page 417
Lumping: How to Ignore Important Distinctions......Page 420
What is the Point of this Critique?......Page 422
Questions, Concerns, and Answers......Page 423
Playing the Game......Page 426
References......Page 427
I. Introduction......Page 429
II. Natural Human Kinds......Page 430
III. A Historical Example......Page 432
IV. Nature Versus Nurture......Page 437
V. The Example of LeVay's Neuro-Anatomical Research......Page 439
VI. Conclusion......Page 442
References......Page 443
PART VII ALTRUISM......Page 445
Introduction to Part VII......Page 446
22 Altruism: Theoretical Contexts......Page 449
References......Page 458
23 What is Evolutionary Altruism?......Page 460
I. Vernacular Altruism......Page 461
II. Darwinian Selection......Page 463
III. The Tragedy of the Commons......Page 468
IV. Simpson's Paradox......Page 471
V. Evolution and the Genealogy of Morals......Page 475
VI. Concluding Remarks......Page 477
References......Page 478
24 On the Relationship Between Evolutionary and Psychological Definitions of Altruism and Selfishnes.........Page 480
I. From Fitness Effect to Motives of the Actor......Page 481
II. Motives as a Metaphor in Evolutionary Definitions......Page 483
B. Why are Motives so Important in Common Language Definitions?......Page 486
References......Page 487
PART VIII THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT......Page 489
Introduction to Part VIII......Page 490
I. Historical Background and Origins of the Human Genome Project......Page 493
II. Towads an Evaluation of the Human Genome Project......Page 496
A. The Feasibility of the Project......Page 497
B. Relevant Ethical Questions......Page 499
C. The Scientific Value of the HGP: Empirical Issues......Page 502
A. Reductionism and Molecular Genetics......Page 506
B. Determinism......Page 514
IV. Concluding Remarks......Page 516
References......Page 517
II. The Scientific Pay-Off......Page 521
III. Short-Term Troubles......Page 526
IV. The Deeper Issues......Page 530
References......Page 533
27 Is Human Genetics Disguised Eugenics?......Page 535
References......Page 548
28 Normality and Variation: The Human Genome Project and the Ideal Human Type......Page 551
Health and Disease......Page 552
Molecular Descriptions......Page 554
Proper Function......Page 557
Population Genetics Models......Page 559
Genetics and Disease......Page 560
References......Page 564
I. The Allegory of the Phone Books......Page 566
II. Straw Allegory?......Page 570
III. The Manhattan Project, the AIDS Crusade, and the Hgp......Page 575
IV. Private Choice and Public Goods......Page 577
References......Page 584
PART IX PROGRESS......Page 585
Introduction to Part IX......Page 586
30 The Moral Foundations of the Idea of Evolutionary Progress: Darwin, Spencer, and the Neo-Darwinia.........Page 589
The Moral Foundations of Spencer's Theory of Evolution......Page 591
Ideas of Progress in Darwin's Early Notebooks......Page 594
The Idea of Progress in the Essay of 1842 and in the Origin of Species......Page 597
Man's Intellectual and Moral Progress......Page 601
References......Page 604
Comparative Progress......Page 607
Innovations......Page 608
Trends......Page 610
A Synthesis......Page 612
Absolute Progress......Page 613
Complexity......Page 614
Darwinism......Page 617
A Biological Anthropic Principle?......Page 618
References......Page 619
A Consensus on Complexity......Page 622
What is Complexity?......Page 623
2 The instability of the homogeneous......Page 625
4. The path of least resistance......Page 626
1. Selection for complexity......Page 627
1. Random walk......Page 628
3. The ratchet......Page 629
The Internalists......Page 630
The Externalists......Page 632
The Sceptics......Page 633
The Moderns......Page 634
Commentary and Recommendations......Page 640
Whence the Consensus?......Page 641
References......Page 643
Progress as Hindrance......Page 647
The Power and Persistence of Non-Progressionist Visions......Page 649
Why we Need Different Explanations for the Phenomena of Progress......Page 651
A Question of Evidence......Page 652
A Question Of Definition......Page 653
Trends as Changes in Variance......Page 654
Size and Flexibility of the Exaptive Pool......Page 657
The Deeper Issue, Restrictively and Misleadingly Addressed By Progress, Can be Reformulated in a Tra.........Page 660
References......Page 664
PART X CREATIONISM......Page 666
Introduction to Part X......Page 667
34 When Faith and Reason Clash: Evolution and the Bible......Page 670
I. When Faith and Reason Clash......Page 671
A. Evolution Religiously Neutral?......Page 677
B. The Likelihood of Evolution......Page 679
References......Page 691
35 Evolution and Special Creation......Page 694
Theistic Science......Page 696
Points of Agreement......Page 700
Galileo and the Bible......Page 703
The Antecedent Likelihood of Special Creation......Page 707
The Thesis of Common Ancestry......Page 710
Theories of Evolution......Page 716
The Integrity of God's Natural World......Page 721
Too Much Autonomy?......Page 723
Conclusion......Page 726
References......Page 727
A. Why Do We Need Augustinian Science?......Page 730
1. Simon and rationality......Page 731
2. Randomness and design......Page 732
3. Is TCA 'certain'?......Page 734
1. Faith and reason......Page 736
3. Is Augustinian science 'science'?......Page 738
A. God: Classicist or Romantic?......Page 741
B. The Empirical Evidence......Page 747
References......Page 750
NOTES ON THE CONTRIBUTORS......Page 751
FURTHER READING......Page 756
E......Page 765
L......Page 766
S......Page 767
Z......Page 768