The Persian Empire 1

Front Cover......Page 1
The Persian Empire......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Contents......Page 7
List of illustrations......Page 46
Preface and acknowledgements......Page 50
Introduction......Page 52
 (a) The physical environment......Page 53
 (b) The political situation preceding the Persian empire......Page 55
 (a) Classical writers......Page 57
 (c) Royal inscriptions......Page 61
 (d) Administrative documents......Page 62
 (e) Archaeological sites......Page 64
 (f) Implications......Page 65
Part I: Prehistory and formation of the empire (c.750-520)......Page 67
  Introduction......Page 68
    1. Tiglath-pileser III (745-727)......Page 71
    2. Sargon II (722-705)......Page 73
    4. Esarhaddon (681-669), Year 5? (676?) (Borger 1956, Nineveh A-F,Ep.15-16)......Page 75
    6. Kashtaritu of Karkashshi forms an alliance against Assyria(SAA 4, no.43)......Page 76
    8. The Assyrians plan an attack on Kashtaritu (SAA 4, no.62)......Page 77
    9. Assyrian tribute-gathering in Media (SAA 4, no.64)......Page 78
    10. Babylonians and Medes victorious over Assyria (ABC, no.3)......Page 79
    12. Peace negotiations between Assyria and the Scythians (SAA 4, no.20)......Page 82
    13. Herodotus' view of the development of Median kingship (Hdt. I,96-101)......Page 83
    14. The successors of Deiokes and the Median struggle against Assyria(Hdt. I, 102-7)......Page 84
    15. The Lydo-Median conflict (Hdt. I, 73-4)......Page 87
    16. Ctesias' story of the fall of Assyria to the Medes (FGrH 688 F 1 b)......Page 88
    17. The Median dynasty according to Ctesias (FGrH 688 F5)......Page 92
    18. Relations between the Babylonian and Median king according to alate Babylonian writer......Page 93
     20. The consolidation of the Lydian conquest (Hdt. I, 141; 153.3-154;156.2-157; 160.1-4; 161-3.1; 168-9; 171.1......Page 117
  Introduction......Page 96
    1. Cyrus' defeat of the Medes and his conquest of Babylonia (ABC, no. 7)......Page 99
    2. A 'Persian' hostage at the Assyrian court? (Weidner 1931-2,Nassouhi Prism, 11.7-13)......Page 102
    3. Inscription on cylinder seal of Cyrus I (PFS 93*)......Page 103
    5. The Persian tribes (Hdt. I, 125)......Page 104
    6. Nabonidus' vision of Cyrus' war against the Medes (VAB 4, Nbn.1)......Page 105
    7. Herodotus' story of Cyrus' defeat of Astyages (Hdt. I, 127-8; 130)......Page 106
    8. Ctesias' story of Cyrus' defeat of Astyages and its consequences(FGrH 688 F9 (1-3))......Page 107
    10. The death of Astyages (FGrH 688 F9(6))......Page 108
     12. Croesus plans to make war on Cyrus (Hdt. I, 53-4)......Page 109
     13. Croesus attacks Cyrus (Hdt. I, 73; 75-7)......Page 110
     14. Croesus defeated and Sardis besieged (Hdt. I, 79-81)......Page 111
     15. The fall of Sardis (Hdt. I, 84)......Page 112
     16. The Persians in Sardis and the fate of Croesus (Hdt. I, 85-8)......Page 113
     17. The fate of Croesus recalled by the poet Bacchylides (Maehler1982/1997,F3)......Page 114
     18. The capture of Sardis (FGrH 688 F9 ( 4 ) )......Page 116
     21. Marduk leads Cyrus into Babylon (Weissbach 1911 + BIN 2, no.32)......Page 119
     22. Cyrus' activities in Babylonian cities......Page 123
     23. A poetic condemnation of Nabonidus and paean in praise of Cyrus (BHT, 83-91)......Page 124
     24. Cyrus' rule in Babylonia in 'prophetic' perspective (BHLT, 28; 32-3)......Page 129
     25. Berossus' account of Cyrus' Babylonian conquest (FGrH 680 F10a)......Page 130
     26. Yahweh chooses Cyrus as ruler of the world (Isaiah 41; 42; 44-45)......Page 131
     27. Cyrus' decree sanctioning restoration of the Jerusalem temple (Ezra 6.2-5)......Page 133
     28. Herodotus' account (Hdt. I, 177-8; 188-92)......Page 134
    29. The tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae (Arr. Anab. VI, 29.4-7)......Page 136
     30. Herodotus' story of Cyrus' origins and birth (Hdt. I, 95; 107-13)......Page 141
     31. Cyrus restored to his parents (Hdt. I, 114-23)......Page 143
     32. Cyrus' family and youth according to Ctesias (FGrH 90 F66(1-7))......Page 146
     33. Cyrus' family according to Xenophon (Xen. Cyrop. I, 2.1-3.2)......Page 147
     34. Herodotus' moralising tale of Cyrus' death among the nomads(Hdt. I, 201; 205-6; 208; 211-14)......Page 148
     35. Cyrus' death in the east according to Ctesias (FGrH 688 F9(7-8))......Page 150
     36. Xenophon's picture: Cyrus dies at home surrounded by his familyand officials (Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 7)......Page 151
     37. Cyrus' reputation (Hdt. III, 160)......Page 152
  Introduction......Page 153
    1. Cambyses' parentage (Hdt. II, 1)......Page 155
    3. A Persian story (Hdt. III, 1)......Page 156
    4. The Egyptian version (Hdt. III, 2)......Page 157
    6. Further variants on the story (FGrH 688 F13a)......Page 158
    7. The Persian preparations......Page 159
    8. The fall of Egypt (Hdt. III, 10-11; 13)......Page 161
    9. The fate of the Egyptian king......Page 162
    10. Campaigns to consolidate frontiers......Page 164
    11. The autobiography of Udjahorresne(t) (Posener 1936, no.1)......Page 166
    12. Epitaph of Apis bull from Cambyses' sixth year (Posener 1936, no.3)......Page 171
    14. Regulations on the verso of the Demotic Chronicle(BN 215, rev.C-D)......Page 173
    16. The Persians curtail the power of Samos (Hdt. III, 120-5)......Page 176
     17. The maltreatment of Amasis' mummy (Hdt. III, 16)......Page 178
     18. The affair of the Apis bull (Hdt. III, 27-9)......Page 179
     20. Cambyses kills his sister (Hdt. III, 32)......Page 180
     21. Cambyses' murder of a Persian courtier's son (Hdt. III, 34-5)......Page 181
     23. Cambyses' punishment of a corrupt judge (Hdt. V, 25)......Page 182
  Introduction (with Appendix on the chronology of Darius I's accession)......Page 184
   1. Darius' account of his seizure of the throne (DB)......Page 190
   2. Bardiya: the blot on the Achaemenid escutcheon (Aeschylus,Persians, 765-79)......Page 207
   3. The murder of Bardiya (Smerdis): Herodotus' version (Hdt. III, 30)......Page 208
   4. Bardiya's revolt and Cambyses' death according to Herodotus(Hdt. III, 61-8)......Page 209
   5. Ctesias' story of how Cambyses murdered his brother, died and amagus acceded to the throne (FGrH 688 F 13 (11-15) )......Page 212
   7. The imposture discovered and the magus denounced (Hdt. III,68-9; 74-5)......Page 214
   9. The seven noble conspirators and the killing of the impostor(Hdt. III, 70-3; 76-9)......Page 216
   11. The seven conspirators agree privileges among themselves (Hdt. III, 83-4)......Page 219
   12. Cyrus the Great dreams of Darius' future kingship (Hdt. I, 209-10)......Page 220
   13. Darius wins the kingship (Hdt. III, 84-8)......Page 221
   15. The elimination of Oroites (Hdt. III, 126-8)......Page 222
   17. The removal of Aryandes (Hdt. IV, 166)......Page 224
   18. A new foundation legend? (Ael., NA 12.21)......Page 225
   19. Cyrus the Great inscribed into Darius' lineage (CMa; CMb; CMc)......Page 226
Part II: Achaemenid history and its problems......Page 227
  Introduction......Page 228
   1. Persian reconnaissance in Greece (Hdt. III, 135-6; 138)......Page 232
   2. Samos becomes a Persian client principality (Hdt. III, 139-47; 149)......Page 233
   3. The conquest of north-western India......Page 235
   4. Reassertion of Persian control along the south-western front (Hdt. IV, 165; 167; 200-4)......Page 236
    5. Revenge for earlier invasion (Hdt. IV, 1)......Page 240
    7. Follow-up to preliminary reconnaissance (FGrH 688 F13(20))......Page 241
    8. Gathering the forces (Hdt. IV, 83; 85; 87)......Page 242
    9. The Persian advance by land and sea (Hdt. IV, 89; 91-3; 97-8)......Page 243
    10. The Scythian response (Hdt. IV, 1 02; 1 20-8)......Page 244
    11. A Scythian challenge to the Persians (Hdt. IV, 131-3)......Page 246
    12. Darius' withdrawal (Hdt. IV, 133-8; 140-3)......Page 247
    13. An abbreviated story of Darius' expedition (FGrH 688 F13(21))......Page 249
    16. The Danube as Persia's frontier (Plut. Alex. 36.4)......Page 250
    1 8. The Paeonians deported (Hdt. V, 14-15; 17; 98)......Page 252
    20. Otanes replaces Megabazus (Hdt. V, 25-6)......Page 253
    22. Raw materials and manpower (Hdt. V, 11; 23)......Page 254
    23. Precious metal deposits in Thrace......Page 255
    25. Persian depots and forts in Thrace (Hdt. VII, 25; 59; 105)......Page 256
    29. Local links with the Persian court (Thuc. VI, 59)......Page 257
    31. The Naxos debacle (Hdt. V, 28; 30-4)......Page 258
    32. The decision to revolt (Hdt. V, 35-8)......Page 260
    33. The Ionian rebels appeal for help in Sparta (Hdt. V, 49-51)......Page 262
    34. Aristagoras is promised help by Athens and Eretria (Hdt. V, 55;96-7; 99)......Page 263
    35. The burning of Sardis (Hdt. V, 100-2)......Page 264
    36. Extension of the revolt (498/7) (Hdt. V, 103-5)......Page 265
    37. Persian action in Cyprus (Hdt. V, 108-16)......Page 266
    38. Persian action in Ionia (Hdt. V, 11 7-23)......Page 267
    39. The flight of Aristagoras (Hdt. V, 124)......Page 269
    40. Histiaeus' arrival in Sardis (496?) (Hdt. VI, 1-6)......Page 270
    42. The Persian fleet delayed at Lindos? (FGrH 532, I)......Page 271
    43. The Battle of Lade (494) (Hdt. VI, 6-11)......Page 272
    44. The fall of Miletus (494) (Hdt. VI, 18-22)......Page 273
    46. Capture and execution of Histiaeus (Hdt. VI, 26; 28-30)......Page 274
    47. Reconquest and reprisals (493) (Hdt. VI, 31-3)......Page 275
    48. Miltiades, tyrant in the Chersonese, is forced to flee (493) (Hdt. VI, 41.1-2)......Page 276
    49. The Persians reorganise affairs in Ionia (493-2) (Hdt. VI, 42-3)......Page 277
   51. Preparations for a campaign in the Aegean (Hdt. VI, 94-5)......Page 278
   53. Persia establishes control over the islands (Hdt. VI, 98-101)......Page 279
   54. Persian patronage of Greek shrines......Page 280
   56. Datis' army defeated at Marathon (490) (Hdt. VI, 112-13; 115-16)......Page 281
   57. The Eretrian captives resettled (Hdt. VI, 119)......Page 282
   59. Darius' last years (Hdt. VII, 1; 4)......Page 283
   60. Darius' mortal illness (FGrH 688 F13(23))......Page 284
  Introduction......Page 285
   1. Darius' choice of successor (XPf)......Page 291
   2. Darius' sons compete for the succession (Hdt. VII, 2-3)......Page 292
   4. Xerxes' court and family (FGrH 688 F13(24))......Page 293
   5. Xerxes' suitability to rule (Hdt. VII, 187)......Page 294
   7. Revolt in Babylonia (FGrH 688 F13(26))......Page 295
   8. A possible reprisal for Babylon's revolt? (Hdt. I, 183)......Page 296
    9. The decision to invade (Hdt. VII, 5-6)......Page 297
    11. Securing the route for the army and the fleet (Hdt. VII, 22; 24)......Page 298
    12. Bridging the Hellespont (Hdt. VII, 33-5)......Page 299
    15. All of Thessaly joins the Persians (Hdt. VII, 1 72; 1 74)......Page 300
    17. The contingents gather to set forth (Hdt. VII, 26)......Page 301
    20. The crossing of the Hellespont (Hdt. VII, 55)......Page 303
    22. The march through Thrace (Hdt. VII, 115)......Page 304
    24. The order of marching and the fleet sent ahead (Hdt. VII, 121-2;124; 127)......Page 305
    26. Part of the Persian fleet destroyed in a storm (Hdt. VII, 188; 190-2)......Page 306
    27. Persian ships captured by Greeks (Hdt. VII, 192-5)......Page 307
    29. Persian and Greek forces confront each other at Thermopylae(Hdt. VII, 201; 207; 210-12)......Page 308
    30. The Persians circumvent the Pass of Thermopylae (Hdt. VII, 213;215; 217-18)......Page 309
    31. The final Persian assault and victory (Hdt. VII, 223-5; 233)......Page 310
    32. The Greek and Persian fleets face and engage each other (Hdt. VIII, 4; 6-7; 10)......Page 311
    33. The Persian fleet victorious against the Greeks (Hdt. VIII, 15-16; 18; 21)......Page 312
    35. Xerxes displays the corpses of the defeated (Hdt. VIII, 24-5)......Page 313
    37. The Persian advance through Doris and Phocis (Hdt. VIII, 31-2)......Page 314
    40. Athens falls to the Persians (Hdt. VIII, 51-3)......Page 315
    41. News of the Persian victory relayed to the royal centre (Hdt. VIII, 54)......Page 316
    43. A later account of the Battle of Salamis (D.S. XI, 17-19)......Page 317
    45. Mardonius prepares for another offensive in spring (Hdt. VIII, 113)......Page 319
    47. Xerxes sails to Ionia (Hdt. VIII, 118)......Page 320
    49. Persians encounter setbacks in Mygdonia and Thrace......Page 321
    50. Greek attempts to compel islanders to join them (Hdt. VIII, 111-12)......Page 322
    51. Persian overtures to Athens (Hdt. VIII, 136; 140)......Page 323
    52. Stalemate in the Aegean (Hdt. VIII, 130-2)......Page 324
    54. Argos in league with the Persians (Hdt. IX, 12)......Page 325
    57. The Persian cavalry charge (Hdt. IX, 20; 22-5)......Page 326
    59. Mardonius' death (Hdt. IX, 62-3)......Page 328
    60. Artabazus withdraws his forces (Hdt. IX, 66; 89-90)......Page 329
    61. A sea-battle at Mycale (Hdt. IX, 90; 96-7; 99; 102)......Page 331
    63. A votive statue from Athens dedicated in Sardis (Plut. Them. 31.1)......Page 333
    66. The Persians lose control of Sestos (Hdt. IX, 114-16; 118-19; 120)......Page 334
    68. Athens forms a league to pursue the struggle (Thuc. I, 96.1)......Page 336
    70. The Persians lose forts in Thrace (Hdt. VII, 106; 107)......Page 337
    72. A Lycian city tries to resist Cimon (Plut. Cim. 12.4)......Page 338
    73. An Athenian victory over the Persian forces on land and sea (466) (D.S. XI, 60.5-61.3)......Page 339
    76. Xerxes sets out for Iran after Mycale (D.S. XI, 36)......Page 340
    78. A Persian counterattack in Asia Minor?......Page 341
    81. Pausanias ingratiates himself with Xerxes and the Persians reorganise Hellespontine Phrygia (Thuc. I, 128.2-131.1)......Page 343
    82. Loyal Greeks established as local lords in the Troad (Xen. Hell. III, 1.6)......Page 345
   85. Xerxes continues his father's work (XPg)......Page 347
   87. Xerxes and Darius: two sides of the same coin......Page 348
   88. Xerxes restates and elaborates the imperial ideology (XPh)......Page 351
   90. Xerxes' death (BM 32234)......Page 353
   92. Three stories about the assassination of Xerxes and Artaxerxes 1'saccession......Page 354
  Introduction......Page 357
    1. The new king's administrative arrangements (D.S. XI, 71.1-2)......Page 361
    3. Court hierarchy and etiquette reformulated? (Plut. Them. 29.5; Plut. Mor. 565a)......Page 362
    5. Artaxerxes completes his father's palace (s) at Persepolis......Page 363
    6. The course of the Egyptian rebellion as seen by a later historian (D.S. XI, 71.3-6; 74; 77.1-5)......Page 366
    7. The Egyptian revolt in Athenian perspective (Thuc. I, 104; 109-10)......Page 368
    9. A Persian story of the Egyptian revolt and its outcome (FGrH 688 F14(3 6-9))......Page 370
    10. A revolt in the satrapy of Beyond-the-River? (FGrH 688 F14(40-2))......Page 372
    12. Erythrae between Persia and Athens (ML, no. 40)......Page 373
    13. A peace agreed between Persia and Athens? (450/449) (D.S. XII, 4.4-6)......Page 374
    14. The Persians exploit political rivalry on Samos (441/0) (Thuc. I,115.2-5)......Page 375
    16. Sparta plans to enlist Persian help in the war against Athens (430) (Thuc.II, 67.1)......Page 376
    18. A Persian embassy to Sparta intercepted (424/3) (Th uc. IV, 50)......Page 377
    19. Artaxerxes 1's death and his offspring (424/3) (FGrH 688 F14(46); F15(47))......Page 378
    20. The struggle for the kingship (FGrH 688 F15(48-50))......Page 379
    21. The family and court of Darius II (FGrH 688 F15(51))......Page 380
    23. Darius II asserts the legitimacy of his kingship (D2Sb; D2Ha)......Page 381
    24. Peace between Athens and Persia, c. 423 ?......Page 382
    25. Rebellion by the satrap of Sardis (FGrH 688 F15(53))......Page 383
    26. Persia intervenes in the Athens-Sparta conflict (Thuc. VIII, 5.4-6.3)......Page 384
    28. The rebel Amorges is taken (Thuc. VIII, 28.2-4)......Page 385
    29. A Lycian dynast oversees an agreement between Tissaphernes andSparta (TAM I, 44)......Page 386
    31. Pharnabazus comes to terms with the Athenians (409/8?) (Xen. Hell.1,3.8-9)......Page 388
    32. The arrival of Cyrus the Younger on the western front (408?)(Xen. Hell. 1,4.1-7)......Page 389
    34. Unrest in Egypt (AD, 5)......Page 390
    37. Darius campaigns in the northern mountains ofIran (Xen. Hell. II, 1.13)......Page 392
  Introduction......Page 394
    1. Darius II's death (Xen. Anab. 1,1-2)......Page 400
    4. Cyrus summoned to court to explain his behaviour (Xen. Hell. II, 1. 8-9)......Page 401
    7. Cyrus builds up his army (Xen. Anab. 1,1.6-7; 9-11)......Page 403
    8. Sparta colludes with Cyrus but keeps its options open (D.S. XlV,19.4-5; 21.1-2)......Page 404
    10. The Persian king receives an early warning of his brother's plans(D. S. XlV, 1 1. 2 - 3)......Page 405
    12. Lycaonia refuses aid (Xen. Anab. I, 2.19)......Page 406
    14. The Cilician dynast hedges his bets (D.S. XlV, 20.2-3)......Page 407
    17. Two mercenary leaders defect (Xen. Anab. I, 4.7)......Page 408
    19. A traitor in Cyrus' camp (Xen. Anab. I, 6.1-3)......Page 409
    21. Gathering the royal forces......Page 410
    22. Artaxerxes II proclaims his genealogical legitimacy (A2Sa + Mayrhofer 1978, 7.1)......Page 411
    23. Cyrus' Greek troops offer their services to Artaxerxes......Page 412
    25. The commander of Cyrus' troops changes sides (Xen. Anab. II, 4.1-2;4.9)......Page 413
    28. Tissaphernes tries to impose his control (D.S. XlV, 35.6-7)......Page 414
    29. A Spartan general recruits the remnants of Cyrus' mercenaries (400-399) (Xen. Hell. III, 1.4-6)......Page 415
    31. The Persian king appoints an Athenian to command the navy (398or 397) (D.S. XIV, 39.1-4)......Page 416
    34. Con on intercepts Spartan ships returning from Egypt (396) (D.S. XlV, 79.4-8)......Page 417
    35. Agesilaus despatched to Asia Minor (396) (Xen. Hell. III, 4.2-6)......Page 418
    36. Persian intelligence for the Spartans (Xen. Hell. III, 4.10)......Page 419
    38. Artaxerxes' anger and the execution of Tissaphernes (Poly. VII, 16)......Page 420
    39. Agesilaus diverted to raid Hellespontine Phrygia and Paphlagonia(autumn 395) (Hell.Oxy. 21.1-3, 5-6; 22.1-3)......Page 421
    40. Spithridates and the Paphlagonians abandon Agesilaus (Xen. Hell.IV, 1. 2 6-8)......Page 423
    42. Persia ejects Spartan garrisons (394/3) (Xen. Hell. IV, 8.1-2)......Page 424
    44. Persians between Athens and Sparta (393-1) (Xen. Hell. IV, 8.12-14, 16-17, 21)......Page 425
    46. The perverse behaviour of Athens and Sparta (390-389) (Xen.Hell. IV, 8.24)......Page 427
    47. The King's Peace (387/6) (Xen. Hell. V, 1.25, 28, 30-1)......Page 428
    48. A panegyrist's view of Evagoras' seizure of power in Salamis (c.415?) (Isoc. Evag. 23-32; 47)......Page 429
    49. Friction between Evagoras and Artaxerxes II (before 398)(FGrH 688 F30)......Page 430
    50. Kition commemorates its victory over Evagoras (392/1?)(Yon and Sznycer 1991)......Page 431
    51. Evagoras' aggressive expansion and the Persian reaction (c.391-386)(D. S. XlV, 9 8.1-4)......Page 433
    52. Persian preparations against Evagoras and his allies (c. 3 91-386) (D. S. XlV, 110. 5; XV, 2)......Page 434
    54. Evagoras obtains grudging help from Egypt (D.S. XV, 4.3; 8.1)......Page 435
    56. The Persians reach a settlement with Evagoras (381?) (D.S. XV, 8.1-3; 9.1-2)......Page 436
    57. A late summary of the end of the first period of Persian rule in Egypt (FGrH 609 F3c)......Page 437
    58. One of Cyrus' partisans seeks refuge at the Egyptian court (401/0) (D. S. XlV, 3 5 . 3-5)......Page 438
    59. Aramaic letter referring to the end of Amyrtaeus' reign and the accession of Nepherites I (398) (BP, 13)......Page 439
    60. Amyrtaeus and the rulers of Dynasty XXIX judged in an Egyptiantract on kingship (BN 215, obv.III 18-21; IV, 1-3; 7-12)......Page 440
    61. Akoris' allies (FGrH 115 F1 03)......Page 441
    63. A Persian commander seeks help from Akoris (384/3?) (D.S. XV, 9.3-4; 18.1)......Page 442
    64. Egypt and Persia prepare to face each other......Page 443
    65. The rulers of Dynasty XXX according to an Egyptian tract on kingship (BN 215, obv.IV 4-5; 13-18)......Page 444
    66. The war against Egypt (374/3) (D.S. XV, 41-43.4)......Page 445
   68. Fighting in northern Mesopotamia in 367 (Sachs and Hunger 1988, no.-366)......Page 447
   69. The Egyptian king seeks refuge at the Persian court (361/0-359/8)(D.S. XV, 92.2-5)......Page 448
   70. The Greek cities affirm their neutrality vis-a.-vis the Persian king (IG IV, 556)......Page 449
   71. A new royal palace at Susa (A 2Sd; Vallat 1979)......Page 450
   72. The death of Artaxerxes II (359/8) (Plut. Artox. 30)......Page 452
   73. Artaxerxes III recites his genealogy (A3Pa)......Page 453
   74. Artaxerxes III succeeds his father (D.S. XV, 93.1)......Page 454
   75. Artaxerxes Ill's war against Egypt delayed by rebellions in Phoenicia and Cyprus (D.S. XVI, 40.3; 40.5-43.3; 44.1-2, 4; 45.1-6; 46.1-3)......Page 456
   76. Sidonian prisoners arrive in Babylon and Susa (345) (ABC, no.9)......Page 459
   77. Egypt reconquered (343/2) (D.S. XVI, 46.4-7; 51)......Page 460
   78. Two contemporary Egyptian responses to the Persian reconquest......Page 461
   79. Artaxerxes III' s reconquest in hostile retrospect......Page 463
   80. Artaxerxes III supports Perinthus against Philip II of Macedon (340/339) (D.S. XVI, 75.1-2)......Page 464
  Introduction......Page 465
    1. Artaxerxes III is succeeded by his son (Hunger 2001: 40-5)......Page 470
    3. A tale of assassinations at the Persian court (D. S. XVII, 5.3 -6)......Page 471
    4. Babylonian echoes of the struggle for the throne......Page 472
    5. A story of Darius' elevation to the throne because of his bravery (Justin X, 3.2-5)......Page 473
    6. Philip II of Macedon sends an advance guard to Abydos (spring 336) (D. S. XVI, 9 1 .2)......Page 474
    7. Darius III responds to the Macedonian incursion (336-5) (D.S. XVII,7 . 1 -3, 8-1 0)......Page 475
    8. Persians and Macedonians meet on the Granicus (May 334)......Page 476
    9. Sardis surrenders to Alexander (Arr. Anab. I, 17.3)......Page 477
    10. Miletus sits on the fence (summer 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 18.3-4)......Page 478
    11. Resistance at Halicarnassus (late summer 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 20.2-3; 23.1-5)......Page 479
    12. The Persian counteroffensive in the Aegean (spring-summer 334) (Arr. Anab. II, 1.1-2.3)......Page 480
    13. A setback for the Persians in Caria (spring 333) (Arr. Anab. II, 5.7)......Page 481
    14. Sparta supports the Persian commanders (summer-November 333) (Arr. Anab. II, 13.4-6)......Page 482
    16. Amyntas in Egypt (winter 333-2) (D.S. XVII, 48.2-4)......Page 483
    17. Damascus betrayed (winter 333/2) (Q.c. III, 12.27-13.4; 13.17)......Page 485
    18. Macedonian successes in Phoenicia (winter 333/2) (Arr. Anab. II, 13.7-8; 15.6)......Page 486
    19. The reduction of Tyre (spring-summer 332) (D.S. XVII, 40.2-3; 46.3-4)......Page 487
    20. Persian counterattacks and setbacks in Asia Minor and the Aegean (end 333 to early summer 332)......Page 488
    21. Persian naval contingents join Alexander (spring 332) (Arr. Anab. II, 20.1-3)......Page 489
    22. Local people obstruct Alexander's attack on Tyre (late April 332?) (Q.c. IV, 2.24-3.1)......Page 490
    24. The fall of Egypt (late 332 to spring 331) (Arr. Anab. III, 1.1-2)......Page 491
    25. Revolt in Samaria (spring 331) (Q.c. IV, 8.9-11)......Page 492
    26. Darius' military preparations (D.S. XVII, 53; 55.1-2)......Page 493
    27. The Battle of Gaugamela and the surrender of Babylon (18 September to 21 October 331) (Sachs and Hunger 1988, no.-330)......Page 494
    28. Darius' retreat to Iran (winter 331/0) (D.S. XVII, 64.1-2)......Page 495
    29. Susasurrenders (December 331) (Arr.Anab.III, 16.6-7)......Page 496
    30. Resistance, treason and destruction in Fars (January to May 330)......Page 25
    31. Darius leaves Ecbatana (Arr. Anab. III, 19.4-5)......Page 498
    33. Dissension in the Persian camp (Q.c. v, 9.1, 13-17)......Page 499
    34. The plot against Darius (Q.c. v, 10.1-9)......Page 500
    35. Darius is arrested and killed (Arr. Anab. III, 21.1, 4-5, 10; 22.1)......Page 501
   36. Oligarchs massacred at Ephesus (summer 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 17.11-12)......Page 503
   37. Aspendus pays the penalty for not complying with Alexander's terms (winter 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 26.2-3, 5; 27.3-4)......Page 504
   38. The autobiography of Somtutefnakht (Tresson 1931)......Page 505
   39. The autobiography of Pet osiris (Lefebvre 1924)......Page 507
   40. Alexander's entry into Babylon......Page 508
   41. Alexander's victory in a Babylonian prophecy (BHLT, 34-5)......Page 509
Part III: Kings and kingship......Page 513
  Introduction......Page 514
   1. A vision of imperial space (DPh; DH)......Page 521
   2. Persia holds Egypt (DSab; Yoyotte 1974)......Page 522
   4. The king depicts and enumerates the subjects of his realm (A?P)......Page 528
   5. The vast span of the empire (Xen. Anab. I, 7.6)......Page 529
   6. Linking centre and periphery (DZc)......Page 530
   7. Persian supremacy in the empire (DPe)......Page 531
   9. The centrality of Persia (Hdt. I, 134)......Page 532
    10. The construction of the Persepolis citadel (DPf)......Page 533
    11. A later description of Persepolis (D.S. XVII, 70.1-2; 71.1, 3-8)......Page 534
    12. The fortifications of Susa (DSe)......Page 536
    13. Darius I's palace at Susa......Page 537
    14. Artaxerxes II's palace at Ec batana (?) (A2Hb )......Page 542
    15. A later description of Ecbatana (Polyb. X, 27.5-10)......Page 546
   16. War and peace (DNa)......Page 547
   17. The kingly qualities (DNb; XPl)......Page 548
   18. A Greek disquisition on Persian kingship (Xen. Anab. I, 9.1-2, 5-8, 11, 13-20, 22-8)......Page 551
   19. Standard features of Persian kingship noted by classical writers......Page 553
   20. The king's table supplied by the empire......Page 554
   21. The royal gardens......Page 555
   22. A royal pageant (Xen. eyrop. VIII, 3.1, 3, 5, 9-19, 24-5, 33-4)......Page 559
   24. The king and army in marching order (Hdt. VII, 40-1)......Page 562
   25. Staging the empire (Hdt. VII, 61-80; 83-7.1; 89-94.1; 95)......Page 564
   26. King and peasant......Page 574
   28. The royal dress (Q.c. III, 3.17-19)......Page 576
   29. The royal audience......Page 579
   30. The king's jewelled bower......Page 584
   31. The king dismounts (Athen. XII, 514a)......Page 585
   32. The king meets his enemies face to face (Plut. Artox. 11.1-3)......Page 586
   33. The royal victor......Page 587
   34. The hardy soldier (Plut. Artox. 24.1-3, 10-11)......Page 589
    35. A contemporary Greek impression of Persian beliefs and cult (Hdt. I, 131-2)......Page 593
    36. A later writer's view of Persian religion (Strabo XV, 3.13-14)......Page 596
    37. Divine protection invoked for a royal building (A2Ha)......Page 599
    38. God and king entwined (DSk)......Page 600
    39. Grain for Auramazda (PF 337)......Page 601
    42. Beer for Adad and Napirisha (PF 353)......Page 602
    44. Record of grain dispensed for cult in 499/8 (PF 1960, 11.3-4)......Page 603
    46. Magi interpret a solar eclipse (Hdt. VII, 37.2-3)......Page 604
    49. Cyrus institutes the magi (Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 1. 23)......Page 605
    51. 'Guardians of the fire' in Fars (PF 741)......Page 606
    53. Xerxes at the Hellespont (Hdt. VII, 54)......Page 607
    55. An image of the sun (Q.c. III, 3.8, 11)......Page 609
    58. The Persian king at the festival of Mithra (Athen. X, 434e)......Page 610
    59. Artaxerxes II and the cult of Anahita (FGrH 680 F 11 )......Page 611
    60. The lions of Anahita's shrine (Aelian NA 12.23)......Page 612
   63. The king-to-be undergoes a rite de passage (Plut. Artox. 3.1-2)......Page 613
   64. The king's birthday (Hdt. IX, 110.2-111.1)......Page 614
   66. Mourning for the king......Page 616
   67. Alexander's funeral cortege: an impression of Persian royalobsequies (D.S. XVIII, 26.1-28.2)......Page 617
   68. Cults at the tombs of royalty......Page 619
  Introduction......Page 621
    1. The furnishings of the royal tent (Hdt. IX, 82.1-2)......Page 624
    2. The royal bathroom (Plut. Alex. 20.12-13)......Page 625
    4. The 'Gateway of All Lands' at Persepolis (XPa)......Page 626
    5. The royal bodyguard......Page 627
    7. The royal cup-bearer (Xen. eyrop. I, 3.8-9)......Page 629
    10. The king's drinking water (Hdt. I, 188)......Page 630
    1 2. Royal doctors and Persian medicine......Page 631
    15. Effeminate creatures......Page 633
    16. Naturally loyal and able servants (Xen. eyrop. VII, 5.59-65)......Page 634
    19. Eunuchs in lowly positions (Plut. Artox. 17.5-6)......Page 635
    21. The care of royal children (Plato, Ale. 121 d)......Page 636
    24. From courtesan to royal concubine (Plut. Artox. 26.5-9)......Page 638
    26. The life of the concubine (Esther 2.1 2-14)......Page 639
    29. Women of the royal family......Page 640
    32. Princesses receive provisions for travel......Page 643
    33. A Persian lady archer (FGrH 688 F15(55))......Page 644
    35. The queen-mother's retinue (D.S. XVII, 38.1)......Page 645
    37. Personnel attached to royal women......Page 646
    38. Parysatis: a cruel queen or the defender of dynastic integrity?......Page 647
   39. 'The king's dinner' (Poly. IV, 3.32)......Page 649
   40. Food supplies for the king in Fars......Page 652
   41. The Persian meal (Hdt. I, 133.2)......Page 654
   42. Dining with the king (FGrH 689 F2)......Page 655
   43. The royal banqueting staff (Athen. XIII, 607f-608a)......Page 656
   44. Royal tableware......Page 658
   45. Royal entertainment......Page 659
   46. Satrapal parks......Page 660
   47. Audience with the satrap......Page 661
   48. Satrapalluxury......Page 663
   49. A mirror image of the royal court (Xen. eyrop. VIII, 6.10)......Page 664
  Introduction......Page 665
    1. Broad distinctions......Page 669
    2. Persian marriage and child bearing......Page 670
    3. Persian military ethos......Page 671
    5. Tribal affiliation (PF 1797)......Page 672
    7. Relative ranking (Xen. Anab. II, 2.1)......Page 673
    8. Persian education......Page 674
    9. Entitlement to, and benefits of, education (Xen. eyrop. I, 2.15)......Page 675
    10. A school for future rulers (Xen. Anab. I, 9.3-4)......Page 676
    11. Songs and tales of the Persians......Page 677
    13. Feeding the princes' mounts (PF 1793)......Page 678
    16. Proximity to the king......Page 679
    18. The register of benefactors......Page 680
    20. Service and reward......Page 681
    21. The unmatched quality of royal gifts (Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 2.7-8)......Page 682
    22. Types of gifts......Page 684
    23. Public conferment of gifts and honours......Page 685
    25. Silver distributed at royal command......Page 686
    26. Food from the royal table......Page 688
    27. The king reaps the benefits of his generosity (Xen. Cyrop.VIII, 2.10-12)......Page 689
    29. The limits of reciprocity......Page 690
    30. The career of Megabyzus (FGrH 688 F14(34; 43))......Page 692
    31. Episodes from the life of Tiribazus......Page 693
    32. Orontes' chequered progress......Page 696
    34. Execution of a traitor (Xen. Anab. I, 6.10)......Page 697
    36. From loyal officer to rebel (Nepos, Datames (14))......Page 698
    38. A clever doctor gains privileges (Hdt. III, 132)......Page 703
    40. Themistocles' exceptional standing at the Persian court (Thuc.I, 138.1-2,5-6)......Page 704
    43. Metiochus' children honoured as Persians (Hdt. VI, 41.3-4)......Page 706
    44. Artabazus, Memnon and Mentor of Rhodes (D.S. XVI, 52.3-4)......Page 707
    45. The king rewards the ruler of Sidon (CIS I, 3)......Page 708
Part IV:Achaemenid imperial organisation......Page 711
  Introduction......Page 712
    1. A Greek writer sets out principles of management ([ Arist. J,Oec. 2. 1. 1 -4)......Page 715
    2. Darius I fixes the basis for regular payment of tribute (Hdt.III, 89-97)......Page 716
    3. Traditions of the generous king......Page 720
    5. A special drug (Aelian NA 4.41)......Page 721
    7. The contents of some royal treasuries......Page 722
    9. Tax paid in silver and kind (BE X 97)......Page 723
    10. A customs account from Egypt (TADAE III, C3.7)......Page 724
    11. Tax-farming in Babylonia (TCL 13, no.196)......Page 746
    13. Registration and taxation of slave sales in Babylonia......Page 747
    15. Mines in Armenia (Strabo XI, 14.9)......Page 749
    17. The stone quarries of Egypt (Posener 1936, no.18)......Page 750
    20. Transport service......Page 751
    21. Work on canals......Page 752
    22. Road maintenance......Page 753
    24. The Uruk temple provisions the king......Page 754
    25. Supplying the king on campaign......Page 755
    27. The wealth of Babylonia (Hdt. I, 192)......Page 756
    29. Animals levied over and above the tribute (Strabo XI, 13.8)......Page 757
    31. The cost of soldiers borne by subjects......Page 758
    32. Account of silver taxes in Fars (PT 85)......Page 760
    33. Land mortgaged to pay taxes in Yehud (Neh. 5.4.-6)......Page 761
    34. Silver transports to the central authority......Page 762
    36. A military land grant in Egypt (AP 16)......Page 763
    37. Request for a land grant from the satrap (AD 8)......Page 764
    38. Registration ofa Babylonian cavalry soldier (Lutz 1928)......Page 765
    39. Local recruitment of troops (Hdt. VII, 96)......Page 766
    41. A royal concession for providing irrigation (Poly b. X, 28.1-4)......Page 767
    43. A royal land grant rented out to a Babylonian temple (OEeT 12,AB 243)......Page 768
    44. The satrap authorises repair of a boat in Egypt (AP 26)......Page 770
  Introduction......Page 773
    1. The imperial roads......Page 776
    3. The stations on the road from Sardis to Susa (Hdt. V, 52-4)......Page 780
    4. Authorisation to draw supplies for a journey (AD 6)......Page 782
    5. Through the desert (Arr. Ind. 43.1-5)......Page 784
    6. Problems encountered off the beaten track (Xen. Anab. I, 5.4-8)......Page 785
    8. Pontoons, bridges, fords......Page 786
    1O.Guarded mountain passes......Page 788
    12. Surveyors and road-building......Page 789
    15. Storage centres......Page 791
    17. The king of Sidon facilitates the passage of an Athenian embassyto Persia (IG II2141)......Page 794
    18. Watchers on the roads (PIut. Them. 30.1) ......Page 795
    20. How to send a secret message (Hdt. VII, 239.2-3)......Page 796
    22. The express service......Page 797
    23. Voice signals (D.S. XIX, 1 7.6-7)......Page 798
    25. Hire of boat with crew (AO 8165, TBER)......Page 799
    27. Grain delivery for a garrison by a Nile boatman (AP 2)......Page 800
    28. A father in the Eastern Delta writes to his son away on service(Padua 1)......Page 801
    29. A husband writes from Memphis to his wife in Aswan (Brescianiand Kamil1966, no.2)......Page 802
    31. Messages exchanged between Aswan and Elephantine(Lindenberger 1994, nos.28-9)......Page 803
    33. Babylonian businessmen in Iran......Page 804
  Introduction......Page 806
    1. Wine account for 503/2 (PF 2003)......Page 813
    3. Account of goats received as tax: 507/6 and 506/5 (PF 2008)......Page 815
    5. Fruit account for 507/6 and 505/4 (PF 1982)......Page 817
    6. A sesame oil account for 495/4 (PF 1993)......Page 818
    7. Cattle account, 508 to 502 (PF 2013)......Page 819
    8. Part of a poultry yard account (PF 20 14)......Page 820
    9. Disbursements of wine in 504/3 (PF 1953)......Page 821
    10. Disbursements of grain in 503/2 (PF 1943)......Page 823
    11. Parnaka, head of the Persepolis administration......Page 825
    12. Zishshawish, Parnaka's deputy......Page 826
    13. Parnaka's secretaries (PF 1810)......Page 827
    15. Parnaka replaces his seal (PF 2067)......Page 828
    17. Directive to apprehend a fugitive and improve bureaucraticpractice (PFa 28)......Page 829
    18.The Persepolis treasurer writes to his subordinate (PT 1)......Page 830
    20. Silver payment instead of rations for vine-dressers(?) at Niriz(PT 52)......Page 831
    23. High-level staff in the Rakkan 'treasury'......Page 832
    24. Staff at the Shiraz 'treasury' (PF 865)......Page 833
    26. Deliveries of hides to local 'treasuries'......Page 834
    27. Craftsmen from many places on the Persepolis terrace (PT 79)......Page 836
    30. An Assyrian woodcarver? (PF 1799)......Page 837
    32. Lydian blacksmiths (PF 873)......Page 838
    34. A weavers' workshop? (PF 999)......Page 839
    36. Size and movement of work groups......Page 840
    38. Meat issued to female supervisors (PF 1 790)......Page 842
    39. Groups of workers defined by a single place of origin......Page 843
    40. Mixed work groups (PT 15)......Page 844
    41. A populous and fertile region......Page 846
    42. Glimpses of government in Fars......Page 847
    44. The paradeisos of Ammashish (PT 1 963, no.9)......Page 849
    46. Deposits atparadeisoi for distribution......Page 850
    48. Location of domains (PF 1857)......Page 851
    49. Small cattle levied on a domain? (PF 2070)......Page 852
    50. Darius 1's estates......Page 853
    52. The dissolution of Hystaspes' household......Page 854
    53. The king's cattle......Page 855
    56. Administration drovers conduct royal flocks (PF 1442)......Page 856
    58. Elamite fragments from Kandahar (SF 1399, Helms 1997)......Page 857
    60. Imperial administrators......Page 858
    61. Accounting for requisitioned horses in the Troad (Plut. Bum. 8.5)......Page 860
    63. Government supplies for soldiers (D.S. Xv, 3.1-3)......Page 861
    65. Workers in Egypt to be marked (AD 7)......Page 862
    66. The estates of Parysatis......Page 863
    67. The crown-prince's estate in Babylonia (Joannes and Lemaire 1996,no.2)......Page 864
    68. The Babylonian estate of Mardonius (BM 64535)......Page 865
    70. Complaints about the behaviour of an estate steward in Egypt (AD 12)......Page 866
    71. A Persian estate in north-west Asia Minor (Xen. Anab. VII, 8.8-9,12-15)......Page 867
  Introduction......Page 869
    1. The Zagros communities (Strabo XI, 13.6)......Page 874
    2. The Uxians......Page 875
    3. The Cossaeans......Page 879
    4. Mysians, Lycaonians and Pisidians (Xen. Anab. III, 2.23)......Page 880
    6. The Carduchians c.400......Page 881
    7. A definition of Iran (Strabo Xv, 2.8)......Page 883
    10. Carmania (StraboXV, 2.14)......Page 884
    11. An expert in Bactrian-Sogdian customs and dialect (Arr. Anab. IV,3.6-7)......Page 885
    12. Persian in Armenia......Page 886
    14. A Macedonian learns Persian (Arr. Anab. VI, 30.2-3)......Page 887
    16. Acculturation in Central Asia (Q.C. VII, 5.28-9)......Page 888
    19. A slave marked in Egyptian is sold in Babylonia (Beaulieu1994, no.55)......Page 889
    21. Military orders relayed through an interpreter (Xen. Anab. I, 2.1 7)......Page 890
    24. The king's interpreter (Q.c. V, 13.6-7)......Page 891
    25. Darius the Egyptian law-giver (D.S. I, 94-5)......Page 892
    27. Accounts prepared in accordance with regulations (PF 1980)......Page 893
    28. Two court records from Egypt......Page 894
    30. The satrap of Egypt and the priests of Khnum......Page 895
    3 1. Persian authorisation of a Jewish cult observance? (AP 21)......Page 897
    32. A quarrel between the Jewish and Egyptian communities onElephantine (AP 27, 30-3; TADAE I, A4.5-10)......Page 898
    33. The citizens ofXanthus found a new cult (FdX VI)......Page 902
    34. Two Iranians invest in grain purchase and transport (PBerlin23000, Naveh and Shaked 1971)......Page 906
    35. Cooperation between local dynast and Persian satrap (Xen. Hell. III,1.10-15)......Page 907
    36.Persian dedications to local cults......Page 908
    37. A marriage is negotiated between a Persian noble and a Paphlagonianchieftain (Xen. Hell. IV, 1.3-15)......Page 912
    38. An Egyptian funerary stela with a Persian figure (Mathiesonetal.1995)......Page 913
    41. Indian elephants at Susa (Q. c. V, 2.9-10)......Page 916
    43. The Straits of Hormuz (Arr. Ind. 32.6-8; 33.1-2, 8)......Page 918
    44. Persian controlled islands in the Gulf (Strabo XVI, 3.5,7)......Page 919
    46. Gardens and a palace near Bushire (Arr. Ind. 39.2-3)......Page 920
 Table 1. Kings of Persia......Page 922
 Table 2. Chronology of main political events......Page 923
  (b) Governors of Bactria......Page 924
  (f) Attested district governors of Judah (YHWD)......Page 925
  1. Weights and measures......Page 927
  2. Calendars......Page 928
  (a) The Family of Xerxes......Page 930
  (b) Artaxerxes I to Artaxerxes II......Page 931
  (c) Darius II to Darius III......Page 932
 I Classical authors......Page 933
   A(a) Achaemenid......Page 945
  B. Civic inscriptions......Page 946
  D. Biblical passages......Page 947
  A. Elamite......Page 948
  B. Aramaic......Page 950
  C. Akkadian......Page 951
  D. Demotic......Page 952
List of abbreviations......Page 953
Bibliography......Page 962
General index......Page 996