the Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology

Cover
The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology: Third Edition
Copyright
Short Contents
Contents
About The Editors
Contributors
Foreword
Memoriam: Remembering C. R. Snyder: A Humble Legacy of Hope
Memoriam: Remembering Shane J. Lopez: A Legacy of Spreading Hope
Preface
Part 1: Major Developments in Positive Psychology
	Chapter 1: Strengthening Positive Psychology
		Making the Case for Positive Psychology
			Rounding Out Psychology
			Unifying Psychology
			Giving Psychology Away
			Attracting More Talent to Psychology
			Strengthening Positive Psychology
			Strengthening the Science of Positive Psychology
			Strengthening the Theories of Positive Psychology
			Strengthening the Practice of Positive Psychology
		Beyond Making a Case for Positive Psychology
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 2: Speculation, Conceptualization, or Evidence?: A History of Positive Psychology
		Common Subjects, Diverse Methods: The “Ancestors” of Positive Psychology
			The Founding of Psychology and the Method of Introspection
			Psychoanalysis and the Method of Interpretation
			Behaviorism and the Method of Observation
			Cognitive Psychology and the Method of Self-Report
			Neuroscience, Evolutionary Psychology, Multiculturalism, and the Future
		Future Questions
		References
		Defining Positive Emotions
	Chapter 3: Positive Emotions
		Defining Positive Emotions
			Positive Emotions vs. Negative Emotions
		The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions
		Short-Term and Long-Term Effects of Positive Emotions
			The Broaden Hypothesis: Positive Emotions Broaden Perception, Thoughts, and Actions
				Visual Attention
				Cognition and Behavior
				Social Cognition
			The Build Hypothesis
			Positive Emotions and Stress
			Positive Emotions and Health
		Measuring Positive Emotions
			Self-Report Measures
			Behavioral Measures
			Physiological Measures
		Future Directions
			Physiological and Neurological Connections
			Interventions
			Properties of Specific Emotions
			Positive Emotion Differentiation
			Models
		Conclusion: Positive Emotions and Positive Psychology
		Questions for the Field
		References
		Note
	Chapter 4: Classifying and Measuring Strengths of Chapter
		History of the VIA Project
		The VIA Classification
		Measures
		Empirical Findings
			Factor Structure of VIA Surveys
			Distribution and Demographics
			Correlates and Consequences
			Origins and Development
			Deliberate Cultivation
			Structure and Trade-offs
		The Future
		Future Questions
		References
		Note
	Chapter 5: Applications of Positive Psychology
		Applied Positive Psychology: A Short History
			Integration With Other Disciplines
			Changing Assumptions Within Clinical Psychology
			Understanding Disorder
			Positive Psychology Interventions
				Earliest Studies
				Gratitude Interventions
				Well-Being Therapy
				Mindfulness-Based Therapies
				Quality-of-Life Therapy
				Positive Psychotherapy
			Reinterpreting Existing Interventions
				Person-Centered Approach and Positive Therapy
		Education and the Teaching of Positive Psychology
		Forensic Psychology and Offender Rehabilitation
		Industrial/Organizational Psychology and the World of Work
			Employee Engagement
			Transformational Leadership
			Positive Organizational Scholarship and Positive Organizational Behavior
			Appreciative Inquiry
		Coaching
		Population Approaches and Public Policy
		Major Questions and Future Directions
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 6: Positive Psychology within a Cultural Context
		Multiculturalism and Cross-Cultural Psychology: Definitional Clarity
		Moving from Models of Inferiority to Models Recognizing Strengths in Diversity
		Research in Multiculturalism and Positive Psychology
		Definitional and Conceptual Differences
		The Function of Strengths in Different Cultural Groups
		Exemplars of Cross-Cultural Investigations of Positive Psychological Constructs
			Subjective Well-Being
			The Construction of Self
			Culturally-Relevant Strengths
		Considering Culture in Practice
		Future Directions for Studying Strengths and Well-Being in a Cultural Context
		Future Questions
		References
Part 2: Positive Psychology Perspectives on Human Behavior
	Chapter 7: Stopping the “Madness”: Positive Psychology and Deconstructing the Illness Ideology and the DSM
		Clinical Psychology Today: The Illness Ideology and the DSM
		The Social Construction and Deconstruction of the DSM
		The Intellectual Deconstruction of the DSM: An Examination of Faulty Assumptions
			Faulty Assumption I: Categories Are Facts About the World
			Faulty Assumption II: We Can Distinguish Between Normal and Abnormal
			Faulty Assumption III: Categories Facilitate Clinical Judgment and Decision-Making
			Faulty Assumption IV: Categories Facilitate Intervention
		Beyond the Illness Ideology and the DSM: Positive Clinical Psychology
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 8: Widening the Diagnostic Focus: A Case for Including Human Strengths and Environmental Resources
		Enlightening Concepts
			Labeling, Distinctiveness, and Deindividuation
			Labeling and the Fundamental Negative Bias
			Basic Proposition
			Experiments on Context
				External Context
		Intrapsychic Context
		Insider versus Outsider Perspectives
		Relative Potency of Positives versus Negatives
		Labeling and Neglect of Environmental Considerations
		Person and Environment as Figure and Ground
		Causal Attribution
		Insider versus Outsider Perspectives
		Covariation
		The Just World Phenomenon
		Task Focus
		Other Factors in Neglect of Environmental Considerations
		Implications for Professional Practice and Research
			Clinical Settings
		The Comprehensive Model of Positive Psychological Assessment (CMPPA)
			CMPPA Steps 1–3
				The Four-Front Approach
			CMPPA Steps 4–5
			CMPPA Steps 6–7
				The Complete State Model of Mental Health
				The Balanced Diagnostic Impressions (DICE-PM) Model
			Research Practices
				Comparing Conditions and Groups in Research
		The Problem of Statistical Significance
		The Problem of Attitude Tests of Stereotypes
		Positive Psychology: Just Another Label?
		Questions for the Field
		References
	Chapter 9: Better Together: The Sciences and the Humanities in the Quest for Human Flourishing
		Introduction
		The Value of Collaboration
		Conceptual Analysis of the “Positive”
		Conceptual Model for Operationalizing the Well-Being Effects of the Humanities
		Conclusion
		Questions for the Field
		Acknowledgment
		References
		Notes
	Chapter 10: Mental Health: Multiple Perspectives for an Evolving Concept
		Introduction
			Toward a Positive Definition of Mental Health
			Models and Dimensions of Mental Health in Positive Psychology
				Psychological Well-Being (PWB)
				Social Well-Being and the Dual Continua Model
				Well-Being Theory (WBT) and the PERMA model
				Positive Well-Being (Huppert)
				Meaning and Sense of Coherence
				The Daily Phenomenology of Mental Health: The Role of Perceived Challenges and Skills
		Mental Health Across the Life Span: Empirical Evidence
			Childhood and Adolescence
			Adulthood and Old Age
		Interventions to Promote Mental Health
			Positive Interventions Promoting Mental Health
		Mental Health and Culture
		Conclusion
		Key Questions
		References
	Chapter 11: Capturing the Complexity and Dynamics of Positive Human Health: Conceptual and Methodological Considerations
		Elaborating the Positive in Positive Psychology
			Measuring Dimensions of Positive Health and Well-Being
			The Need for Idiographic Evidence
			The Need for Evidence of Measurement Invariance
		Designing Studies of Change
			Intensive Burst Designs
		Methodologies That Are Sensitive to Dynamic Relationships
			Multilevel Structural Equation Models
			Location Scale Models
			Dynamic Systems Analysis
		Summary and Conclusions
		Future Questions
		References
		Note
Part 3: Positive Psychology across the Lifespan
	Chapter 12: Positive Psychology of Infancy and Early Childhood: Chapter in the Handbook of Positive Psychology
		Theoretical Background
		Evolutionary Background
			Individual Differences
		Emotions
			Emotions in Early Childhood: Definition and Concept
			Positive Emotions
				Interest
				Joy
			Negative Emotions
				Anger
				Sadness
			Emotions and Optimal Development
		Parent-Child Relationships
			Attachment: Definition and Concept
			Secure and Insecure Attachment
				Secure Attachment
				Insecure Attachment
			Long-Term Consequences of Attachment Differences
			Promoting Secure Attachment
		Broader Ecological Factors
			Socioeconomic Status
				Family Income
				Parent Education
				Early Childhood Education
			Community and Family Structure
		Early Childhood Optimal Developmental and Positive Psychology
			Happiness
			The Benefits of Play
				Friendship
				Flow
				Achievement
				Meaning
			Moral and Character Development
				Moral Development
				Character Strengths
		Conclusions
			The Future of Early Childhood Optimal Development Research
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 13: Resilience in Development
		History of the Study of Resilience in the Behavioral Sciences
		Conceptual Models of Resilience
			Defining Resilience
			Defining and Assessing Positive Adaptation and Good Developmental Outcomes
			Defining and Assessing Threats to Good Adaptation or Development
			Assessing Promotive and Protective Factors
			Models of Resilience
				Variable-Focused Models of Resilience
				Person-Focused Models of Resilience
				Pathway Models
				Transactional Models Across Levels of Analysis
		A Summary of Findings on Resilience in Development
		Fostering Resilience: Implications for Policy and Practice
		Conclusions and Future Directions for Resilience Research
		Future Questions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 14: Positive Psychology for Children and Adolescents: Development, Prevention, and Promotion
		Hope
			Definition and Concept
			Measurement
			Research Examining Hope in Children
			Intervention
		Optimism
			Definition and Concept
			Measurement
			Interventions
		Quality of Life
			Definition and Concept
			Measurement
			Interventions
		Benefit-Finding and Growth
			Definition and Concept
			Measurement
			Intervention
		Related Concepts of Positive Psychology
		Important Considerations for Positive Psychology as It Relates to Children
			Developmental Perspective
			Prevention and Promotion
			Settings for Service Delivery
		Future Research Directions
		Future Questions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 15: Positive Youth Development: Relational Developmental Systems Approaches to Thriving from Childhood to Early Adulthood
		Introduction
		The Relational Developmental Systems Metatheory: An Overview
		The Five Cs Model of PYD
			Tests of the Lerner and Lerner PYD Model
		Limitations of the 4-H Study for Understanding PYD
		Studying PYD: The Sample Case of Character Development
			Focusing on Character in PYD
				The Character and Merit Project (CAMP)
				The Buddy Project
				The Quandary Project
				The Doing the Right Thing Project
				Evaluating the Positive Coaching Alliance Model: Developing Competitors of Character
				The Assessment of Character in the Trades (ACT) Study
				The Young Entrepreneurs Study (YES)
				The West Point Character and Leadership Development Project
			Conclusions
		Methodological Issues in the Further Testing of RDS-Based Models Across the First Three Decades of Life
		From Research to Application in the Service of Promoting PYD
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
		Notes
	Chapter 16: Positive Aging from a Lifespan Perspectiv16 e
		Introduction
		The Fourth Age
			The Good Death
			Subjective Health
			Ego Integrity
		The Third Age
			The Paradox of Aging
			Social Ties and Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
			The Positivity Effect
			Retirement
			Encore Careers
			Generativity
			Grandparenthood
		Interventions
			Mindfulness Meditation Interventions to Promote Perceived Control and Hedonic Well-Being
			Reminiscence and Life Review Interventions to Promote Ego Integrity and Life Meaning Making
			Advance Directives to Promote SelfDetermination and Eudaimonic Well-Being
			Exercise and Cognitive Activity Interventions to Promote Physical and Cognitive Well-Being
		Conclusion
		Questions for the Future
		References
	Chapter 17: Territories of Positive Life Span Development: Wisdom and Sehnsucht (Life Longings)
		Positive Psychology and the Study of Wisdom and Sehnsucht
		Wisdom: Knowledge about Life’s Potentials and Constraints
			The Berlin Wisdom Model
			Assessment of Wisdom-Related Knowledge
		Selected Findings from Studies Using the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm
			The Development of Wisdom During Ontogenesis
				Personal vs. General Wisdom: Multidirectional Age Differences?
				The Ontogenesis of Wisdom: A Sequence of Gain and Loss?
			Conclusions
		The Activation of Wisdom-Related Knowledge
		The Relationship Between Wisdom and Indicators of Successful Development
			Sehnsucht: Personally Experiencing Life’s
		Potentials and Constraints
			A Psychological Conceptualization of
		Sehnsucht: Six Characteristics
			Assessment of Sehnsucht
		Selected Findings from Research on Sehnsucht
			The Development of Sehnsucht during Ontogenesis
			The Interplay Between Sehnsucht and Goals
			The Relationship Between Sehnsucht and Indicators of Successful Development
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		Future Questions
		Acknowledgement
		References
		Notes
Part 4: Emotional Approaches
	Chapter 18: Subjective Well-Being: The Science of Happiness and Life Satisfaction
		Definition of Subjective Well-Being
		History of Subjective Well-Being
		Measurement of Subjective Well-Being
		Theoretical Approach to Subjective Well-Being
		Current Findings
			Demographic Correlates of Subjective Well-Being
			Hedonic Adaptation
			The Effect of Interventions
			Objective Consequences of Subjective Well-Being
			Culture and Subjective Well-Being
		Future Research
		Future Questions
		References
		Appendix
			The Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985)
		Satisfaction With Life Scale
		Scoring and Interpretation of the Scale
	Chapter 19: Happiness in Nations: Pursuit of Greater Happiness for a Greater Number of Citizens
		Call for Greater Happiness
			Ideological Context
			Plan of This Paper
		What Is “Happiness”?
			Four Qualities of Life
				Livability of the Environment
				“Life-ability” of the Person
				Usefulness of Life
				Core Meaning: Subjective Enjoyment of Life
			Four Kinds of Satisfaction
				Pleasure
				Satisfaction with Life Domains
				Peak Experience
				Core Meaning: Lasting Satisfaction with One’s Life as a Whole
			Definition of Happiness
		Measurement of Happiness in Nations
			Common Questions
				Direct vs. Indirect Questions
				Single vs. Multiple Questions
			Validity
			Reliability
			Cross-Cultural Comparability
		What Governments Should Know
			Is Greater Happiness in the Country Possible?
			Can Governments Do Much About the Happiness of Citizens?
			What Can Governments Do to Foster Happiness?
			How Compatible Is the Goal with Other Policy Aims?
		What Available Research Findings Tell
			World Database of Happiness
		Greater Happiness for a Great Number Is Possible
			Great Happiness of a Great Number of Citizens Is Possible
			Greater Happiness Is Also Possible
			Much of the Difference in Average Happiness in Nations Is in Societal Conditions That Governments Can Influence
				Economic Development
				Freedom
				Equality
				Security
				Care
				Institutional Quality
				Modernity
			Compatible with Common Aims of Public Policy
				The Means to Greater Happiness Fit Other Aims
				Happiness as Such Has Beneficial Side Effects
		Further Research
		Key Questions
		References
		Notes
	Chapter 20: The  Experience of Flow: Theory and Research
		Optimal Experience and Its Role in Development
			Flow, Attention, and the Self
			Flow, Complexity, and Development
			The Autotelic Personality
			Measuring Flow
				Interview
				Questionnaire
				Experience Sampling Method
				Objective Measurement
				Experimental Manipulation
			Measuring the Autotelic Personality
		Topics in Flow Research
			Consequences of Flow
			The Nature and Dynamics of Flow
				Temporal Dynamics
				The Experiential Landscape
			Activity Contexts of Flow
				Flow at School
				Flow at Work
			Obstacles and Facilitators of the Flow Experience
				Preference for Relaxation Versus Flow
				Attitudes Toward Work and Play
				Autotelic Personality
				Autotelic Families
		Directions for Future Research
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 21: Positive Affectivity: The Disposition to Experience Pleasurable Emotional State
		Differentiating Between Positive and Negative Affectivity
		The Hierarchical Structure of Positive Affectivity
		Measures of Positive Affectivity
			Positive Affectivity Scales
			Measures of Related Constructs
		Summary of Research Findings
			Causes and Correlates of Positive Affectivity
				Genetic Evidence
				Neurobiological Basis of Positive Affectivity
				Demographic and Environmental Correlates
			Broader Significance of the Trait
				Links to Psychopathology
				Job and Marital Satisfaction
				Physical Health
				Cultural Influences
		Raising Positive Affectivity
		Questions for the Field
		References
	Chapter 22: The Social Construction of Self-Esteem
		The Emergence of Self-Esteem
		Self-Esteem and American Culture
		Self-Esteem as a Socially Constructed Emotion
		Mood, Self-Esteem, and Discourse
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 23: Coping through Emotional Approach: The Utility of Processing and Expressing Emotions in Response to Stress
		History of the Construct
		Assessment of Coping through Emotional Approach
		Coping through Emotional Approach as a Contributor to Health
			Cross-sectional Research
			Longitudinal Research
			Summary of Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research
			Moderators of the Relationship between Emotional Approach Coping and Outcomes
			Mechanisms of the Effects of Emotional Approach Coping
			Summary of Moderators and Mechanisms of Emotional Approach Coping
		Emotional Processing and Expression in Clinical Interventions
			Emotional Approach Coping as a Mediator of Intervention Effects
			Emotional Approach Coping as a Moderator of Intervention Effects
			Summary of Intervention Findings
		Remaining Questions and Directions for Research
		Conclusions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 24: Thriving on Emotional Intelligence? Bridging Research and Practice
		The Ability Model of EI
			Research Findings
			Conceptualization and Measurement Challenges
		Perceived EI
			Research Findings
			Challenges and Limitations
		Towards an Integrated View of Emotionally Intelligent Behavior
			A Multipolar Perspective
			Linking Abilities and Traits
			Linking EI and IQ
			Linking Emotion Regulation and Motivation
			Summary
		Training and Intervention
			Developing Individuals
			Developing Groups and Organizations
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		Author’s Note
		References
Part 5: Cognitive Approaches
	Chapter 25: Creativity
		Defining the Phenomenon
		Measurement Approaches
			The Creative Process
			The Creative Person
			The Creative Product
		Empirical Findings
			Developmental Adversity
			Psychopathology
		Theoretical Issues
			The Nature-versus-Nurture Issue
			Little-c versus Big-C Creativity
			Domain-Specific versus Generic Processes
		Practical Applications
			Early Development
			Adult Encouragement
		Future Directions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 26: The Role of Personal Control in Adaptive Functioning
		Overview of Perceived Control Research and Theory
		Why Is a Sense of Control Beneficial?
		What People Do to Get a Sense of Control
		Measuring Perceptions of Control
		Realism and Illusion in the Effects of Personal Control
		Individual Differences
		Interventions to Increase Control
		Future Directions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 27: Well-Being: Mindfulness versus Positive Evaluation
		Introducing Mindfulness
		Mindfulness, Uncertainty, and Automatic Behavior
		Mindlessness and Evaluation
		The Multiple Meanings of Behavior
		Regrets
		Excuses
		Blame and Forgiveness
		Discrimination Is Not Evaluation
		Attention to Variability: A New Look at Well-being and Happiness
		The Myth of Inaction
		Mindfulness versus Positive Evaluation
		Conclusions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 28: Optimism
		Optimism and Subjective Well-Being
		Optimism, Pessimism, and Coping
		Optimism and Health-Promoting Behaviors
		Pessimism and Health-Defeating Behaviors
		Optimism and Physical Well-Being
		Optimism and Social Relationships
		Remaining Issues
		Is Optimism Always Better Than Pessimism?
		Origins of Optimism
		Interventions to Promote Optimism
		Optimism and Pessimism: One Dimension or Two?
		Cultural Issues
		Concluding Comments
		Future Questions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Appendix
	Chapter 29: Optimistic Explanatory Style 29
		History: From Learned Helplessness to Explanatory Style
			Human Helplessness
			Attributional Reformulation and Explanatory Style
			Measures of Explanatory Style
		Changing Explanatory Style
		Origins of Explanatory Style
			Genetics
			Parents
			Teachers
			Media
			Trauma
			Conclusions
		Directions for Future Research: Explanatory Style as a Positive Psychology Concern
		Future Questions
		References
		Recommended Readings
	Chapter 30: Hope Theory
		Origins of Hope Theory
		Overview of Hope Theory
			Goals
			Pathways
			Agency
			Agency and Pathways Together
			Hope and Emotions
			Full Hope Model
		Measuring Hope
			Trait Hope Scale
			State Hope Scale
			Children’s Hope Scale
		Hope Goes Global
			Distinguishing Between Hope and Optimism
		Hope and Life Outcomes
			Hope and Student Performance
			Hope and Well-being
				Physical Health
				Psychological Adjustment
			Coping
			Interpersonal Relationships
			Work
			Hope Interventions
		Future Directions
		Future Questions
		References
		Appendix: Adult Hope Scale
	Chapter 31: Self-Efficacy: The Power of Believing You Can
		What Is Self-Efficacy?
			A Very Brief History
			Defining Self-Efficacy
		Where Do Self-Efficacy Beliefs Come From?
			Performance Experiences
			Vicarious Experiences
			Imagined Experiences
			Verbal Persuasion
			Physiological and Emotional States
		Why Is Self-Efficacy Important?
			Self-Efficacy and Psychological Well-Being
			Self-Efficacy and Physical Health
			Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulation
			Self-Efficacy and Psychotherapy
			Collective Efficacy
		Summary
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 32: The Important Role of Problem Solving Appraisal in Creating a Positive Life Across Cultural Contexts
		Brief History of Applied Problem Solving
		Model Advocated in This Chapter: Problem Solving Appraisal
			Measuring Problem Solving Appraisal
				Problem Solving Inventory
		Summary of the Problem Solving Appraisal Literature
			Psychological Adjustment
				General Psychological and Social Adjustment
				Depression
				Hopelessness and Suicidal Behavior
				Alcohol Use and Abuse
				Personality Variables
				Childhood Adjustment
			Physical Health
			Coping
				Reports of Coping Activities
				Help-Seeking and Resource Utilization
			Career and Vocational Issues
		Problem Solving Training Interventions
			Teaching Specific Component Skills
			Teaching a General Problem Solving Model
			Teaching Specific Skills in Conjunction with Other Interventions
		Future Research Directions and Conclusions
			Understanding the Development of a Positive Problem Solving Appraisal
			Problem Solving Appraisal and Proactive Coping
			Problem Solving Appraisal and Culture
			Promoting Healthy Problem Solving Appraisal Within Education
			Positive Career Outcomes
			Problem Solving Appraisal in Elderly Populations
			Therapeutic Change, Problem Solving Appraisal, and Positive Emotions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 33: Self-Determination
		Self-Determination
			Self-Determination and Human Agency
			Assumptions of Theories of Human Agency
		Origins of the Self-Determination Construct
			Self-Determination in Philosophy
			Self-Determination in Personality Psychology
		Theories of Self-Determination
			Self-Determination Theory
			Causal Agency Theory
			Self-Caused Action vs. Control
				Volitional Action
				Agentic Action
				Action-Control Beliefs
			Socio-Contextual Influences
		Development of Self-Determination
			Psychological and Biological Needs
			Causal Agency
				Action-Control Beliefs
			Control Expectancy Beliefs
			Agency Beliefs
			Causality Beliefs
				Causal Action
		Conclusions
			Future Research
		Future Questions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 34: Curiosity and Interest: The Benefits of Thriving on Novelty and Challenge
		Introduction
		What Is Curiosity?
		Individual Differences in Curiosity
			Models of Trait Curiosity
			Why Do People Vary?
		Recent Discoveries and Unknown Territory
			Curiosity in the Social World
			Curiosity and Well-Being
			Clinical Uses of Curiosity
		A Brief Agenda for the Future Study of Curiosity
		Conclusions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 35: Courage
		Introduction
		Early Courage Research
		Features and Types of Courage
			Necessary Features of Courage
			Types of Courageous Actions
		Psychological Traits, States, and Processes Associated with Courage
			Psychological Traits
			Negative Emotional States
			Morally Relevant States
			Efficacy-Relevant States
			Character Development
			Social Influence
			Altruism
			Self-Regulation
			Gender Differences
		Measurement of Courage
			Self-Report Measures of Courage: Context-Free
			Self-Report Measures of Courage: Specific Contexts
			Courage in the Workplace
			Vignettes
			Other Courage-Measurement Procedures
			Laboratory Situations
		Future Directions
			How does being courageous affect future life outcomes?
			How does culture affect courage?
			How does accolade courage affect others?
			How can (and when should) practitioners intervene to increase courage?
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
Part 6: Interpersonal Approaches
	Chapter 36: Compassion
		Introduction
		Basic Requirements for Compassion
			The Roots of Identification with Others
		When Compassion Is Absent
		Compassion as Evidence for the Nature of Humankind
		Compassion and the Nature of Suffering
		Knowing that Others Are Suffering
			Compassion and Medicine
		Compassion and Love
		A Physician’s Compassion and Positive Psychology
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 37: Attachment Theory as a Relational Framework for Positive Psychology
		Attachment Theory: Basic Concepts
		Mental Representations of Attachment Security
		Evidence That Attachment Security Reduces the Need for Defensive Motives and Cognitions
			The Need for Self-Enhancement
			The Needs for Consensus and Uniqueness
			Inter-group Biases
			The Defense of One’s Knowledge Structures
			Defending Cultural Beliefs in the Face of Thoughts of Mortality
			A Two-Level Model of Psychological Defenses
		Evidence That Attachment Security Facilitates Development of a Fully Functioning Personality
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 38: Understanding Empathy: Current State and Future Research Challenges
		Historical Roots of Empathy
			Types of Empathy
				Cognitive or Affective Nature of Empathy
				Empathic Concern
				Trait, Experienced, or a Process of Empathy
		Contemporary Understandings of Empathy
			Neuroscience of Empathy
				Empathy and Mirror Neurons
				Empathy and the Medial Prefrontal Cortex
				An Integrated View
			Empathy in Relation to Diversity, Multiculturalism, and Social Justice
				Empathy in Cross-racial and Ethnic Groups
				Multicultural Values and Empathy
			Social Justice and Empathy
		Positive Psychology of Empathy
			Empathy and Compassion
				Compassion
				Compassionate Empathy
			Positive Empathy
				Positive Emotional Empathy
				Positive Cognitive Empathy
				Role of Positive Empathy
			Positive Functions of Traditional Empathy
				Positive Function of Empathy for Empathizees
				Positive Function of Empathy for Empathizers
				Positive Function of Empathy in Helping Relationships
		Summative Analysis of the Current State and Future Challenges of Empathy Research
			Noted Advances in Empathy Theory and Future Research Directions
			Major Challenges
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 39: Forgiveness
		What Is Forgiveness?
		Methodology
		Predictors of Forgiveness
			Intrapersonal Variables
				Empathy
				Personality
				Religiousness
			Interpersonal Variables
			Transgression-Specific Variables
			Summary
		Outcomes of Forgiveness
			Intrapersonal Outcomes and Mechanisms
			Interpersonal Outcomes and Mechanisms
		Forgiveness Interventions
			Enright’s Process Model of Forgiveness
			Worthington’s REACH Forgiveness Model
		The Dark Side of Forgiveness
		New Directions
			Self-forgiveness
			Intergroup Forgiveness
		Future Directions
		Conclusions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 40: Progress in the Science of Gratitude
		Foundational Issues in the Science of Gratitude
			The Legacy of Gratitude
		The Good of Gratitude
			Grateful People Tend to Be Happy People
			Gratitude Interventions Enhance Happiness
			Can People Become More Grateful?
		What Might Inhibit Gratitude?
		How Does Gratitude Enhance Well-Being?
			Gratitude Might Amplify the Good in Cognition
			Gratitude Amplifies the Good in Relationships
			Gratitude Amplifies the Good in Oneself
		Conclusions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 41: Love
		From Ancient Concepts of Love to Modern Love Marriage
		Modern Beginnings
			Evolution of Love
			Attachment
			Loving and Liking
			Passionate and Companionate Love
		Recent Love Theories and Their Measurement
			Prototypes of Love
			Self-Expansion
			Love Triangles
			Adult Attachment
			Love Styles
		A Sampling of Research on Love
			Communicating Love
			Love Attitudes
			Love Across Cultures
			Love and Sexuality
			Love and Respect
		Emerging Research and Theory on Love
			The Body in Love
			Health and Love
				Physical Health and Love
				Mental Health and Love
			Compassionate Love
		Future Directions
		Questions About the Future
		References
	Chapter 42: Positive Processes in Close Relationships
		Relationships, Health, and Psychological Well-Being
		Appetitive and Aversive Processes in Relationships
		Aversive Processes in Relationships
		Appetitive Processes in Relationships
			Positive Emotions
				Love
				Gratitude
			Capitalization
			Intimacy and Responsiveness
				Growth of the Self-Concept
		Future Directions
			Biological Pathways Linking Interpersonal Relationships to Health
			Other Relationships
			Moderating Conditions
		Concluding Comments
		Questions for the Field
		References
	Chapter 43: Intergenerational Solidarity: Dualities in the Evolution of a Paradigm
		Historical Roots of the Intergenerational Solidarity Paradigm
		Latent Solidarity and Manifest Solidarity
		Conflict and the Intergenerational Solidarity Paradigm
		Within Family Variability in Solidarity
		Concluding Thoughts and Questions of the Future
		References
Part 7: Self-Based Approaches
	Chapter 44: What’s Positive About 44 bout Self-Verification?
		What Is Self-Verification?
		Self-Verification Theory and Positive Psychology
			How Is Self-Verification Adaptive Intrapsychically?
				Self-Verification Promotes Psychological Coherence
				Self-Verification Reduces Anxiety
				Self-Verification Improves Health
				Self-Verification and Authenticity
				Self-Verification and Creativity
			How Is Self-Verification Adaptive Interpersonally?
				Intimacy
				Harmonious Social Interactions
				Trust
		When Is Self-Verification Maladaptive?
		What Can Self-Verification Reveal About Raising Self-Esteem?
		What Can Self-Verification Reveal About Happiness?
		Conclusion
		Questions for the Field
		References
	Chapter 45: Reality Negotiation
		Reality Negotiation Defined
		Reality Negotiation in Context
		Individual Differences in Reality Negotiation
		Reality Negotiation: An Overview
			Reality Negotiation as an Automatic Process
			Linkage-Focused Reality Negotiation
			Valence-Focused Reality Negotiation
		Reality Negotiation as Coping
		Reality Negotiation: Who Controls the Process?
		Reality Negotiation and Social Support
		New Directions
		Future Directions
		References
	Chapter 46: Humility
		Method of the Review
		Results of the Review: Conceptual
			Defining Humility
				Accurate Self-Assessment
			Modest Self-Presentation
			Other-Orientation
			Summary and Critiques
				Types of Humility
				Relational Humility
				Intellectual Humility
				Spiritual Humility
					Alternative Approaches to Understanding Humility
				Humility as a Character Strength or Virtue
		Results of the Review: Measurement
		Results of the Review: Empirical
			Hypothesis 1: The Structure of the Humility Hypothesis
				Accurate Self-Appraisal
				Modest Self-Presentation
				Other-Oriented
			Hypothesis 2: The Virtues and Vices Hypotheses
				High Humility Is Related to Many Virtues
			Hypothesis 3: The Social Functioning Hypotheses
				The Social Bonds Hypothesis
				The Sacrifice–Threshold Hypotheses
				The Social Oil Hypothesis
				The Humble Leader Hypothesis
				The Social Health–Transmission Hypothesis
			Hypothesis 4: The Humility–Health Hypothesis
				The Mental Health Hypothesis
				The Physical Health Hypothesis
			Hypothesis 5: The Spirituality Hypothesis
				Measuring Spiritual Humility
				Spiritual Humility Is Related to Other Types of Humility
			Hypothesis 6: The Societal Peace Hypothesis
			Hypothesis 7: The Satisfaction Hypothesis
			Interventions to Promote Humility
				Critiques of Outcome Studies
		Future Research
		Conclusions About Humility
		Future Questions
		Acknowledgment
		References
Part 8: Biological Approaches
	Chapter 47: Toward a Biology of Social Support 47
		Stress-Responsive Systems
		Social Connections, Physiological Functioning, and Health
		Social Connections and Reactivity to Stressors
			Social Support and Physiological Reactivity
			Individual Differences, Social Support, and Reactivity
		Physiological Substrates of Affiliative Behavior: Oxytocin and Endogenous Opioids
		Conclusion
		Key Questions
		References
	Chapter 48: New Perspectives On the Role of the Heart in Positive Emotions, Intuition, and Social Coherence
		The Physiology of Positive Emotions
		Psychophysiological Coherence and Positive Emotional States
			The Coherence Model’s Postulates
		The Key Role of the Heart in Emotional Experience
		Positive Emotion-Refocusing Tools and Techniques
		Coherence at the Social and Global Levels
		High Group Coherence: Energetic Interactions
		Global Coherence
		Self-Regulation Techniques That Increase Cardiac Coherence
		The Heart, Positive Emotions, and Spirituality
		The Intuitive Heart
		Summary and Conclusion
		Future Questions
		Note
		References
	Chapter 49: Building Emotional Stability and Mental Capacity
		Emotional Stability and Mental Capacity: The Toughness Model
			Arousal from challenges and stressors
			Toughening in the abstract
			Early toughness theory
		Cognitive Enrichment Toughens
			Mental/psychological toughness from cognitive enrichment2
			Physiological toughness from cognitive enrichment
		Physical Exercise Toughens
			Mental/psychological toughening through exercise
			Physiological toughening from physical exercise
		Toughening through Meditation and Related Activities
			Meditation toughens us mentally and psychologically
			Physiological toughness from meditation and related activities
			Genetic impacts
		Nurturance Toughens
			Nurturance Toughens Mental/psychological toughening through nurturance6
			Physiological toughening from nurturance, affection, and love
		But Manageable Stressors Also Toughen
		Toughening Self-Control
			Mental/psychological toughness from practicing self-control
			The elements of physiological toughness and the range of toughening activities that foster self-control
		Is Toughness a Unified Concept?
			An interactive model.
		Summary and Conclusions
			Three Questions for the Future
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 50: The Associations Between Positive Affect and Health
		Introduction
		Positive Affect and Health
			Mortality
			Morbidity
			Survival
			Self-Reported Health, Symptom Report, and Pain
		Pathways Connecting Positive Affect and Health
			Main Effect
			Stress Buffering and Undoing Hypotheses
		Discussion and Future Directions
			Related Positive Psychology Constructs
			Positive Psychology Interventions
			Specific Emotions Approach
			The Role of Culture
			The Role of Technology
		Conclusion
		Key Questions
		References
	Chapter 51: Neurogenetics of Resilience
		Why imaging genetics?
		The Imaging Genetics Approach
			Selection of Candidate Genes
			Selection of Task and Imaging Method
		Genes, Brains, and Emotions
			Positive Affect and Resilience
		Imaging Genetics and the Serotonin Transporter Gene
		Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)
		Gene x Environment Interactions
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		Three Questions for the Field:
		References
	Chapter 52: Neural Connectivity of the Creative Mind
		Introduction
		Approaches to Creativity
			Defining Creativity
			Creativity and Mental Illness
			Types of Creativity
			Models of Creative Thought
			Methods in Creativity Research
		Approaches to Brain Connectivity
			Structural Connectivity
			Functional Connectivity
		Cognition
			Divergent Thinking
			Working Memory and Intelligence
			Insight
			Cognitive Styles and Personality
			Improvisation
			Flow
		Domains of Knowledge and Perception
			Perception and Creativity
			Perceptual Tests of Creativity
			Domains of Perception
			Domain-Specific Exceptional Ability
			Reception of Artistic Creativity
		Interventions: Fostering Creativity Through Neuroplasticity
			Cognitive Growth
			Music Training
			Transfer Effects
		Conclusions
			Directions for Future Research
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 53: Neural and Physiological Mechanisms of Altruism and Empathy
		Background
		Ultimate versus Proximate Levels of Analysis
			Integrated Ultimate and Proximate “Caregiving” Views of Prosociality
		Empathy
			The Perception–Action View of Empathy
				Emotional Empathy is Intrinsic to Cognitive Empathy
				The Self–Other Overlap is Conceptual
				Empathy Requires Similar Experience, in a Graded Fashion
			Neural Mechanisms of Empathy
				Empathy for Pain
				Other Relevant Brain Areas for Empathy
		Altruism
			Ultimate Views of Altruism
			Proximate Psychological Views of Altruism
				Bystander Apathy
				Empathy-Altruism Theories
			The Ultimate and Proximate Bases of Active Altruistic Responding
			Proximate Neural Bases of Altruism from an Offspring-Care Perspective
		Summary
		Future Questions
		References
Part 9: Positive Institutions
	Chapter 54: Family-Centered Positive Psychology: A Framework for Research-Based Practices
		Families as Important Contexts for Development
			The Changing Demography of Families
			Healthy Children and Families
			Parent–Child Relationship
		Ecological Theory as a Framework for Working with Families
		Family-Centered Positive Psychology
			Guiding Principles of Family-Centered Services
				Family Empowerment
				Acquisition of New Skills and Competencies
				Family-Identified Rather Than Professional-Determined Needs
				Use of Existing Family Strengths
				Strengthening Social Supports
			Implications for Practice: Collaborating and Partnering with Families
				Getting Ready
				Conjoint Behavioral Consultation
			Future Research Directions
		Acknowledgments
		Note
		References
	Chapter 55: School as a Positive Learning and Working Environment
		Introduction
		Summary of Research Findings
			Relations of Exogenous Input Variables with Process and Outcome Variables
				Student Level
				Teacher Level
			Relations of Endogenous Input Variables with Process and Outcome Variables
				Student Level
				Teacher Level
			Relations Between Process Variables and Outcome Variables
				Student Level
				Teacher Level
			Positive Education Programs (Formal Classroom Intervention Programs)
		Conclusion
		Future Directions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 56: Positive Psychology on Campus 56
		Positive Psychology on Campus
		The Thriving College Student
			Thriving in the Classroom
			Thriving Student Leaders
			Thriving as Psychological Well-being
		The Thriving Campus
			Institutional Integrity
			Developing a Sense of Community on Campus
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 57: Positive Workplaces
		Historical Progression of Positive
			Approaches to the Workplace
		Contemporary Positive Approaches to the Workplace
		Positive Organizational Behavior
		Psychological Capital (PsyCap)
		Creating Positive Workplaces
		Future Directions
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 58: Positive Institutions: Organizations, Laws, and Policies
		How to Build Positive Law Firms
		How to Create Positive Law Schools
		Facilitating Innovation, Creativity, and Entrepreneurship
		Subjective Well-Being Measures of Policy
		Positive “Parentonomics”
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
		Notes
	Chapter 59: Psychotherapy, Counseling, and Coaching
		Introduction
		Definitions and Characteristics
		Theoretical Models for Psychotherapy, Counseling, and Coaching
		Similarities and Differences Between Psychotherapy, Counseling, and Coaching
		The Definition and Role of Well-Being in Psychotherapy, Counseling, and Coaching
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
Part 10: Specific Coping Approaches
	Chapter 60: Meditation and Positive Psychology 60
		Mindfulness and Positive Psychology
		Theoretical Foundations: What Is Mindfulness?
		Three Core Elements of Mindfulness
			Intention
			Attention
			Attitude
			Formal and Informal Practice
		Original Intentions of Mindfulness Meditation
		Mindfulness Research
		Positive Physiological Findings
			Immune Function
			Neuroplasticity
			Stress reactivity and recovery
		Positive Psychological Findings
			Psychological flexibility
			Creativity
			Attention/concentration
			Interpersonal relationships
			Relapse prevention
			Happiness and positive affect
			Optimism
			Empathy
			Self-compassion
			Self-actualization
			Moral maturity
			Spirituality
		Future Directions
		Conclusions
		Questions for the Field
		References
	Chapter 61: Spirituality: The Search for the Sacred
		Defining Spirituality
			The Place of Religion
		Spiritual Processes
			Discovery
			Conservation
			Struggles and Transformation
		Spiritual Integration and Dis-Integration
			Problems of Spiritual Destinations
			Problems of Spiritual Pathways
		Conclusions and Implications
		References
		Note
	Chapter 62: Personal Narratives, Expressive Writing and Wellbeing
		The “Narrative Turn” and the Text Analogy in the Social Sciences
		The Impact of Writing on Well-being
		What Our Words Say About Our Identity and Our Personality
		Writing and Mental Health
		Writing and Physical Health
		Writing and the Creation of Meaning
		Effects of Writing on Social and Personal Relationships
		Writing and Academic Success
		Writing Online
		Why Does Expressive Writing Work?
		Writing About Positive Experiences
		When and How to Write?
		Applications of Expressive Writing
		Positive Psychology Interventions That Involve Writing
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
		Notes
	Chapter 63: Benefit-Finding
		Introduction
		Historical Roots
		Imprecise Terminology
		The Measurement Quagmire: What Do Post-Traumatic Growth and Benefit-Finding Scales Measure?
		Theories and Conceptualizations
		Is Benefit-Finding Associated with Desirable Outcomes?
		Post-Traumatic Growth and Benefit Finding Interventions
			Interventions That Inadvertently Foster Growth
			Interventions Designed to Initiate or Enhance Benefit-Finding and Growth
		The Case for Less Research in the Future
		Conclusion
		Key Questions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Note
	Chapter 64: Pathways to Growth Following Trauma and Loss
		Loss, Goals, and Posttraumatic Growth
		Deconstructing Posttraumatic Growth
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 65: Happiness and Resilience Following Physical 65 hysical Disability
		Happiness After Disability
			The Hedonic Treadmill, Set Point Theory, and Disability
			Circumstances and Affective Forecasting Regarding Disability
			Construing Happiness Following Disability as an Intentional Act
		Resilience, Positive Emotions, and Positive Growth Following Disability
			Possible Sources of Resilience and Growth Following Disability
			Narratives as Indicators of Resilience and Growth Regarding Disability
			Positive Emotion, Resilience, and Happiness: Issues for Studying Disability
			A Caveat: Resiliency and Growth Should Be Encouraged, Not Required
		Looking Forward
		Future Questions
		References
Part 11: Toward Better Lives
	Chapter 66: The Promise of Fostering Greater Happiness
		What Are Happy and Unhappy People Like?
			Construal
			Social Comparison
			Decision Making
			Reflective Processes
		Can Less Happy People Learn Strategies to Achieve Sustainable Happiness?
			Reservations About the Pursuit of Happiness
			The Sustainable Happiness Model
		Using Positive Activities as the Basis of Happiness Interventions
			Committing Acts of Kindness
			Expressing Gratitude
			Visualizing Best Possible Selves
			Re-experiencing Happy Life Events
		Moderators of Positive Activities
			Motivation and Effort
			Culture
			Initial Happiness and Depression
			Person–Activity Fit
		Current and Future Directions
		Happiness in the Spotlight
		Conclusion
		Future Questions
		References
	Chapter 67: Meaning in Life: A Unified Model
		A Unified Model of Meaning in Life
		Three Facets of Meaning in Life
			Significance
			Comprehension
			Purpose
		Our Search for Meaning
		Sources of Meaning
		Orientations to Meaning
		A Unified Model
		Meaning and Life
		Future Questions
		References
		Note
	Chapter 68: The Future of Positive Psychology: A Bright Outlook
		Looking Back to Look Ahead
		Bringing Balance
		Focusing on Our Future
		A Wider Reach
		New Horizons
		Dedication
		Questions
		References
Index