THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ANCIENT NUBIA

Cover
Ancient Nubia
Copyright
Contents
List of Contributors
Nubia, a Brief Introduction
	Nubia: Geography, Language, People, and Time
	Continuity and Change, Unity and Diversity
	The Structure of the Volume
	Acknowledgments
	Note
Part I: Contexts for Nubian Studies
	Chapter 1: History of Archaeological Work in the Middle Nile Region
		Introduction
		Classical Writers and Early Explorers
		Explorers during the Turkiyya and the Mahdiyya Periods
		Explorations at the Beginning of the 21st Century
		Conclusion
		References Cited
		Website
	Chapter 2: Past, Present, Future
		Introduction
		Shaping Research Traditions: The History of Archaeology in the Middle Nile Valley
			Mapping the World: The Quest for Origins and Empires
			Institutionalizing the Archaeology of Nubia and Sudan
			The Globalization of the Nubian Past: The UNESCO Campaign
			The Last Fifty Years
		The Archaeology of Nubia and Sudan Today
			Dominant Legacies and New Perspectives
			Sudanese Archaeology: Between Authority and Participation
			Outlook
		Acknowledgments
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 3: Geology of Nubia and Surrounding Regions
		Introduction
		Physiography
		Bedrock Geology and Tectonic Development
			Basement Complex
			Phanerozoic Sedimentary Rocks
		Surficial Geology: Quaternary Processes and Deposits
			Weathering and Erosion
			Sedimentation
			Nile River
				Cataracts
				Course Changes and the Great Bend
		Volcanism
		Seismicity
		Hydrology
		References Cited
	Chapter 4: Holocene Environments in Northeast Africa
		Introduction
		Holocene Flood History of the Blue and White Nile Rivers
		Holocene Environments in the Main Nile
		Holocene Environments West and East of the Main Nile
		Summary and Conclusions
		Note
		References Cited
Part II: Nubia: A Deep History
	Chapter 5: Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherers of Nubia
		Introduction
		Pre-Acheulean
		Acheulean Industrial Complex
		Middle Stone Age
		Upper/Late Paleolithic
		Pleistocene Human Remains from Nubia
		Out-of-Africa from Nubian Perspective
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 6: From Foraging to Food Producing: The Mesolithic and Neolithic of the Middle Nile Valley
		Introduction
		The Mesolithic
			Mesolithic Inter-site and Intra-site Overview, Cemeteries, Subsistence
				Kerma and El-Khiday Areas
				Reconstructing the Subsistence System
		Precursory to Neolithization: A Challenge
			Neolithic Evidence
			The Neolithization of the Sudanese Nile Valley
		The Neolithic: Concluding Remarks
	Chapter 7: The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia
		Introduction
		New Cultural Constructs
		Alternative Power
		Collapse and Resiliency
		Conclusion
		References Cited
	Chapter 8: The Pre-Kerma Culture and the Beginning of the Kerma Kingdom
		Chronology, Pottery, and Cultural Affinities
		Settlement and Subsistence Economy
		Note
		References Cited
	Chapter 9: The C-Group People in Lower Nubia: Cattle Pastoralists on the Frontier between Egypt and Kush
		History of Research
		Origins
		A Pastoral Way of Life
		Forging an Ethnic Identity
			The Cemeteries
			The Pottery
			Personal Decoration
		Encounters with Egypt
			Egyptian Caravans
		Political Unification in Lower Nubia
		Climate Change and Political Upheavals
			Mercenaries in Egypt
			Trade and Prosperity
			The Obscure Kings of Lower Nubia
		Occupied by Egypt
		Between Egypt and Kush
		Acculturation
		References Cited
	Chapter 10: Kush in the Wider World During the Kerma Period
		Introduction and Sources
		Upper Nubia before Kush: The Egyptian Old Kingdom
		The Emergence of Kush
		The First Empire of Kush in the Second Intermediate Period
		Kushites and Egypt
		Kushite Public Art
		Kush and the Horse
		The World of the Kushite Empire and the Beginning of the End
		The Legacy of Old Kush
		Abbreviation
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 11: The Cities of Kerma and Pnubs-Dokki Gel
		The Nubian City of Kerma
		The Port Area and its Religious Foundations; a Royal Tomb of the Kerma Classique and the Indigenous Funerary Area
		The African City of Dokki Gel
		The menenu of Thutmose I
		Conclusions
		References Cited
	Chapter 12: The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma
		General Development of the Cemetery
		Funerary Rituals
		The Origins of the Cemetery and the Beginning of Stratified Society
		Chapels and Temples
		The End of the Eastern Cemetery and the Western Royal Grave
		References Cited
	Chapter 13: Pan-Grave and Medjay: At the Intersection of Archaeology and History
		The Pan-Grave Tradition
		The Medjay
		How Scholars Had Linked the Medjay and the Pan-Grave
		Theories of Pastoralists, Pastoral Nomads, and Acculturation
		Medjay and Pan-Grave Living in Egypt along the Nile Valley
		Medjay and Pan-Grave Living in Lower Nubia along the Nile Valley
		Medjay and Pan-Grave Living in the Eastern Desert
		Medjay and Pan-Grave Living in Upper Nubia
		Pan-Grave Skeletons
		The Pan-Grave and the Medjay in Retrospect
		References Cited
	Chapter 14: From Hunters to Herders: The Libyan Desert in Prehistoric Times
		Introduction
		The Beginnings
		The Holocene Sequence
		The Early Holocene (ca. 9000–7000 bce)
		The Middle Holocene (ca. 7000–3500 bce)
			The Early Middle Holocene (7th to 5th millennium bce)
			The Later Middle Holocene (5th to 4th millennium bce)
		The Late Holocene (Starting ca. 3500 bce)
		Conclusion
		References Cited
	Chapter 15: Egyptian Fortresses and the Colonization of Lower Nubia in the Middle Kingdom
		Architecture, Economics, Warfare, and Ideology
		The State of Research
		Purposes of the Fortresses
			founded settlements of the Middle Kingdom.
		The Fortresses
		The Northern Nile Fortresses
		The Southern Fortresses
		Related Remains
		Texts
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 16: Nubians in Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period to the New Kingdom
		Introduction
		Early Settlement of Eastern Sahara and the Nile Valley
		The A-Group and Related Cultures
		The C-Group
		Medjay/Pan-Grave Culture
		Kerma
		New Kingdom and the Question of Acculturation (Egyptianization)
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 17: Human Adaptation to Environmental Change in the Northern Dongola Reach
		Surveys in the Middle Nile Valley
		Life on the Desert Edge: The Environmental Background
		Genesis of the Project
		The Archaeology
			Paleolithic and Mesolithic
			The Neolithic
			Pre-Kerma
			Kerma
			Egyptian Control
			From the 1st Millennium bce to the Present
		Summary
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 18: Egyptian Conquest and Administration of Nubia
		The Stages of the Conquest
		Organizing the Administration of Nubia
		A Better Knowledge of Upper Nubia
		Last Policy under the Ramessides
		References Cited
	Chapter 19: The Amun Cult and Its Development in Nubia
		The Origins of Amun and Connections with Nubia
		The Name of the God: Egyptian Rather than Nubian
		The Ram-Headed Amun: Origins
		The Cult of the Ram-Headed Amun
		A Solarized Deity
		The Anthropomorphic Amun
		Amuns of Nubia
			The Holy Cities of Amun in the Area of Napata
			Napata
			Pnubs
			Kawa
			Sanam
			Tara
			The Other Cult Places of Amun
		Entourage of Amun
		Politico-religious Background of the Expansion of Amun’s Cult
		Amun’s Characteristics, Prerogatives, and Functions in Nubia
			Royal Legitimation
			Amun Provider of Water and Flood
			Amun Dwelling in Caves and Mountains
			Demiurge/Creator
			Provider of Lands and Victories
		Amun’s Cult and Temple Organization in Kush
			Cult Rituals
			Incomes and Offerings
			Riverine and Processional Bark
			Festivals
			Priesthood
			Temples
		Abbreviations
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 20: The Nubian Experience of Egyptian Domination During the New Kingdom
		Imperial Domination and Subaltern Responses
		Nubians under Egyptian Domination
			Resistance, Rejection, and Indifference
			Collaboration and Assimilation
			Entanglement, Hybridity, and Mutual Influence
				Askut and Tombos
				Hillat el-Arab and Tombos
		Conclusions
		References Cited
	Chapter 21: History and the Kushite Royal Inscriptions
		Introduction
		Kushite “History as Festival”?
		Causality and the “Lord of History”
		Kushite Archives and Archaism
		The Audience(s) of Kushite Texts
		Conclusion
		References Cited
	Chapter 22: The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 1: The Intermediate Period and Second Empire
		General Background
		Written Sources and Technical Problems
		From the End of the New Kingdom to Kashta
		Queen-King Katimala
		Ari/Ariamani
		Archaeology of the 10th through Early 8th Centuries bce
		Archaeology: Fortresses, Habitations, and Storehouses
		Summary: The Nubian Intermediate Period
		The Napatan State
		Atlanersa, Senkamanisken, Anlamani, Aspelta: An Interpretation
		Continuity in the Neo-Kushite State
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 23: The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 2: Eclipse and Revival in the Later Napatan Period; Conditions in the State
		Napatan History and Continuity
		The Later Napatan Period
		Herodotus and Aithiopia(ns)
		Intra-African Relations
		The Constitution of the State
		The Economy of Kush
		Napatan Kushite Culture and Egypt
		Conclusion
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 24: Jebel Barkal: “Karnak” of Kush
		Introduction: Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata
		The Nature of Amun of Jebel Barkal
		Jebel Barkal in the New Kingdom
		Jebel Barkal under Kushite Rule
		Acknowledgments
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 25: Nubians in Egypt during the 25th Dynasty
		Introduction
		Evidence for Nubians in 25th Dynasty Egypt
		Kushite Tomb Groups in Egypt
		The Identity of Nubians in Egypt
			Name
			Cult
			Funerary Culture
			Iconography of Objects
			Use of Hieroglyphic Script
		Summary
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 26: Kushites in Egypt,664 BCE–14 CE: Egypt and Kush in the Borderlands of Lower Nubia
		Kushites in Egypt during the 26th Dynasty (Middle Napatan Period)
		Kushites in Egypt during the Persian Period (Late Napatan Period)
		The Ptolemaic Period (Meroitic Kingdom)
		Kushites in Egypt during the Early Roman Period
		Discussion and Conclusions
		Abbreviations
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 27: The Meroitic Heartland
		Introduction
			The Geographical Setting
			The Ecological Setting in the Meroitic Heartland
			Textual and Archaeological Sources Relating to the Meroitic Period
			Textual and Archaeological Sources Relating to the Meroitic Period
		The Meroitic Heartland in Chronological Perspective
			The Meroitic Heartland in Pre- and Early Kushite Times
			The Transition to the Meroitic Period in the First Half of the 3rd Century BCE
			Early Meroitic Period (3rd–2nd Century BCE)
			Classic Meroitic Period—The Golden Age (1st Century bce–1st Century CE)
			Late Meroitic Period (2nd–End of 3rd Century ce)
			Terminal Meroitic Period—Isolation and Collapse of the Meroe Royalty (4th Century CE)
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 28: The City of Meroe
		Introduction
		Name
		Location and Natural Setting
		Discovery
		Excavations
		Origin of Meroe
		The Royal City
		Amun Temple Complex
		North Mound
		South Mound
		Life in Meroe
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 29: The Royal and Elite Cemeteries at Meroe
		Overview of the Royal and Elite Cemeteries
		The Western Elite Cemetery at Meroe
		The Southern Royal and Elite Cemetery
		The Northern Royal Cemetery
		Summary
		Note
		References Cited
	Chapter 30: Death and Burial in the Kingdom of Meroe
		The Last Pyramids of the Nile Valley
		A Twofold Funerary Tradition
		The Cult of the Dead
		The Ba-statue: A Meroitic Reinvention
		Mortuary Equipment
		The Treatment of the Corpse
		References
	Chapter 31: Prolegomena to the Study of Meroitic Art
		Introduction
			The Meaning of Iconography vs Style
			Framework of this Study
		Art Reflecting its Culture
			Materials
			Decoration of Temples
			Decoration of Royal Palaces
			Decoration of Burials
				Royal Burials at Meroe
				Elite Burials between the Second and Fourth Cataracts
				Non-elite Burials
			Production of Art
				Workshops and Visual Style
			General Stylistic Features of Meroitic Art
				Indigenous Features
				Abstraction and Naturalism as Components of Visual Style
				Treatment of Forms in Space
				Representation of the Figure
			Sculptural Types in the Round
			Relief Sculpture
				Temple Reliefs
				Pyramid Chapel Reliefs
				Offering Table Reliefs
				Funerary Stela Reliefs
				Royal Non-Funerary Stelae Reliefs
		Art Created within a Specific Period of Time: Preliminary Periodization of Meroitic Art
			The Early Period (mid-3rd century bce–first half of 1st century ce)
			The Middle Period (first half of 1st century ce–first half of 2nd century ce)
			The Late Period (second half of 2nd century ce–mid-4th century ce)
		Art Reflecting Different Indigenous and Foreign Visual Styles: Meroitic Appropriations and Adaptations of Napatan, Pharaonic, and Greco-Roman Egyptian, and Classical Art
			Napatan Art
			Pharaonic, Greco-Roman Egyptian, and Classical Art
			Napatan Art
		Summary
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 32: Language and Writing in the Kingdom of Meroe
		The Linguistic Situation in Ancient Sudan
			Egyptian
			Cushitic Languages
			Meroitic
			Nubian
		Meroitic Language
			History of Research
			Grammatical Outline
		Meroitic Scripts
		Meroitic Texts
		Abbreviations
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 33: The Eastern Desert in the 1st Millennium BCE and 1st Millennium CE
		Introduction
		The Textual Sources
			Napatan Sources (7th–4th century bce)
			Meroitic and Ptolemaic Sources (4th century bce–4th century ce)
			Late Roman, Byzantine, Blemmyan, and Nubian Sources (4th–6th century ce)
			Axumite Sources
			Textual Sources: Discussion
		The Archaeological Data
			1st Millennium bce
			1st Millennium ce
		Final Remarks
		References Cited
	Chapter 34: Greek and Roman Views of Ancient Nubia
		The Classical Accounts of Kush
		Blameless Aithiopians
		First Contact
		The Ptolemaic Image of Kush
		Rome and Kush
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		Abbreviations
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 35: The X-Group Period in Lower Nubia
		Introduction
		Textual Sources
		Settlement
		Ritual Practice
		Burial Practice
		Qustul and Ballana
			Material Culture
		Meroitic Antecedents and Cultural Complexity
		References Cited
	Chapter 36: Post-Meroe in Upper Nubia
		Introduction
		Burial Types
		The Pottery
			Transitional Pottery (ca. 300–350 ce)
			Post-Meroitic Ceramic Production
		Conclusions
		Abbreviations
		References Cited
	Chapter 37: The History of Medieval Nubia
		Acknowledgments
		Abbreviations
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 38: Nubian Texts, Nubian Lives
		A Survey of Text Genres
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 39: Language Use and Literacy in Late Antique and Medieval Nubia
		Introduction
		Language Use in the Time of Three Kingdoms
		Language Use and Literacy in the Time of Two Kingdoms
			Makuria
				Sources
				Greek
				Coptic
				Nubian
				Other Languages
				Language Contact
			Alwa
		Conclusion: The Linguistic Situation in Medieval Nubia from a Sociolinguistic Perspective
		Acknowledgments
		Abbreviation
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 40: The Topography of Power in Medieval Nubia
		Tungul, the Capital
		Pachoras (Faras) in Nobadia
		Soba in Alwa
		Qasr Ibrim: Fortress on the Rock
		Jebel Adda in Dotawo
		Ez-Zuma: The Fortress of King Negil
		Summary
		References Cited
	Chapter 41: The Archaeology of Medieval Nubian Kingdoms
		Nomenclature
		History of Research
		Regional Characteristics of Medieval Nubia
			Nobadia
			Makuria
			Alwa
		Religious Architecture
		Conclusion
		References Cited
	Chapter 42: Arts and Crafts of the Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia
		Introduction
			State of the Art
			Historical Background: Territory and Time—Misleading Factors
		Art of Nobadia (6th to 7th Century)
			Architecture
			Wall Painting
			Craftsmanship
		Art of Makuria (6th–7th Century)
			Architecture
			Architectural Decoration
			Wall Painting
			Craftsmanship
		Art of Makuria (8th–14th Centuries)
			8th Century
				Architecture
				Architectural Decoration
				Wall Painting
				Craftsmanship
			9th–12th Centuries
				Architecture
				Architectural Decoration
				Wall Painting
				Wall Painting of the 12th Century
				Craftsmanship
			13th–14th Centuries
				Architecture
				Wall Painting
				Craftsmanship
		The Art of Alwa
			Architecture
				Architectural Decoration
			Wall Painting
			Craftsmanship
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 43: Islam in the Funj and Ottoman Periods in Sudan
		Prelude
			Information at Hand
			The Historical Setting
				The Funj Domain
				The Ottoman Domain
		Data Consideration
			The Nature of Islam in Both Domains
			Lessons from Cemeteries
				The Qubbas (Domed Tombs) as Cultural Indicator
				The Lesser Shrines
				Cemeteries and Identity
			Other Religious Buildings
		Conclusions
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 44: Islamic Nubian Kingdoms
		Introduction
		The Eastern Tradition: The Funj Kingdom of Sinnar, ca. 1500–1821
		The Western Tradition: The Tunjur of Darfur and Wadai
		Conclusion
		References Cited
Part III: Perspectives On Nubia
	Chapter 45: Cattle Cultures in Ancient Nubia
		Introduction
		Cattle in Funerary Rituals
		Interpreting Animal Deposits: The Contribution of Anthropology
		Nubian Pastoral Practices Revealed by Rock Art
		References Cited
	Chapter 46: Savanna on the Nile: Long-term Agricultural Diversification and Intensification in Nubia
		Introduction
			The Archaeobotanical Record: Preservation, Recovery, and the State of the Evidence
		Challenges of the Nubian Environment: Water and Seasonality
		An Early Nubian Frontier: The Establishment of Levantine Agriculture on the Nile
		The Origins of Sorghum and the Savannah Package
		Diversification, Fruit Crops, and Specialization
		Agricultural Innovations of the Meroitic Kingdom and the Post-Meroitic Re-organization
		The Shifting Frontier of Bread and Porridge Traditions
		Concluding Remarks
		References Cited
	Chapter 47: Exploitation of Geological Resources: Ancient Mines and Quarries in Nubia
		Introduction
		Quarries for Building and Ornamental Stones
		Mines for Metals and Gemstones
		Appendices. Ancient Mines and Quarries in Nubia
		References Cited
	Chapter 48: Iron Production at Meroe
		Introduction: Ancient Iron Production
		Challenges to understanding ancient iron production at Meroe
			Determining Scale of Production
			Additional Challenges to Investigating Ancient Iron Production
		Iron Production and Kush: A Summary of Current Knowledge
			Location of Production
			Periods of Iron Production
			Relationships between the Location and Scale of Iron Production and Kushite History: Early Kush
			Relationships between the Location and Scale of Iron Production and Kushite History: Later Kush
			Iron Production: Technological Change and Continuity
		Discussion
		Conclusions and Outlook
		Acknowledgments
		References Cited
	Chapter 49: Trade in Ancient Nubia: Routes, Goods, and Structures
		Introduction
		Routes in the Middle Nile Region
		Transportation in the Middle Nile Region
		Trade: Raw Materials and Finished Goods
		Conclusions
		Abbreviation
		References Cited
	Chapter 50: Women in Ancient Kush
		Introduction
		Royal and Elite Nubian Women before the Kingdom of Kush
		Royal Women and the Concept of Queenship in the Kingdom of Kush
		The Costume of Kushite Royal Women
		Names and Titles of Royal Women in Kush
		Royal Women in the Tombs of El-Kurru, Nuri, and Meroe
		Roles of Royal Women in Temple Cult and Ritual
		Royal Women in the Ideology of Kingship
		The Kushite “God’s Wives of Amun” in 25th Dynasty Egypt
		Non-Royal Women in Ancient Nubia
		Gender and the Individual
		Occupations
		Death and Burial
		Outlook
		References Cited
	Chapter 51: Perspectives on the Body in Ancient Nubia
		Introduction
		Figured Bodies
		Crystalized Bodies
		Hybrid Bodies
		Commensal Bodies
		Conclusion
		References Cited
	Chapter 52: Bioarchaeology of Nubia
		Introduction
		Excavation of Human Skeletal Remains in Nubia
		Paleopathological Analyses
		Biological Relationships
		Bioarchaeological Analyses of Skeletal Collections from Ancient Nubia
		References Cited
	Chapter 53: Landscape Archaeologies in Nubia and the Middle Nile
		Introduction
		Historical Ecologies and Settlement Landscapes
		Landscapes of Settlement and Mobility: Making Places
		Landscapes of Power
		Landscape Archaeologies in Nubia
		References Cited
	Chapter 54: Nubian Rock Art
		Introduction
		From the History of Research
		The UNESCO Nubian Salvage Campaign
		Hamdab Dam and Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project
			Gdańsk Archaeological Museum Expedition (GAME) Rock Art Sites
			The Gdansk Collection of Rock Engravings
		Bir Nurayet—One of the Largest Rock Art Galleries in Africa
		Rock Art as Part of the Landscape
		The Inspirations behind Rock Art and its Significance
		The Periodization of Nubian Rock Art
			Middle and Late Predynastic: Horizon I and II (3900–3650 bce)
			The Terminal Predynastic and Early Dynastic: Horizon III (3300–2650 bce)
			The Old to New Kingdom: Horizon IV and V (2650–1070 bce)
			The Late Pharaonic and Post-Antique Period: Horizon VI and VII (ca. 1070 bce–after 641 ce)
		Conclusions
		Notes
		References Cited
	Chapter 55: Archaeological Practice in the 21st Century: Reflecting on Archaeologist-Community Relationships in Sudan’s Nile Valley
		Introduction: Archaeology and Colonialism
		Archaeology and Dam Building
		Archaeology and Decolonization in Sudan
		Case Study 1: Meroe (jane humphris and Rebecca bradshaw)
		Case Study 2: El-Kurru (geoff emberling)
		Conclusion
		Notes
		References Cited
Index