The Oil Palm

The Oil Palm......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface to the fourth edition......Page 21
Preface to the second edition......Page 23
Preface to the first edition......Page 24
Acknowledgements......Page 26
Abbreviations......Page 28
1.1.2 Historical evidence......Page 31
1.2.1 Geographical distribution......Page 32
1.2.3 Early trade......Page 33
1.2.4 Development, use and improvement of the African palm groves......Page 34
1.3.3 The Asian plantation industry......Page 36
1.4.1 General......Page 37
1.4.2.1 Changes in the past......Page 42
1.4.2.3 Competition between regions......Page 43
1.4.2.4 Competition between products......Page 44
1.4.3.1 Indonesia......Page 45
1.4.3.2 Malaysia......Page 46
1.4.3.3 Other Asian countries......Page 48
1.4.3.4 Nigeria......Page 49
1.4.3.8 Brazil......Page 50
1.5.1 Main mechanisms of oil palm development......Page 51
1.5.3 Smallholders......Page 52
1.5.4 Research......Page 53
1.6.1 Trade in oil palm products......Page 54
1.6.3.2 As biomass and internal combustion fuels......Page 55
1.6.4 The conflict over ‘tropical oils’......Page 56
2.2 The african oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq......Page 57
2.2.1.1 The seed......Page 58
2.2.1.2 The seedling......Page 60
2.2.1.3 Development of the stem and stem apex......Page 61
2.2.1.4 The leaf......Page 63
2.2.1.5 The root system......Page 65
2.2.2.1 Inflorescences......Page 67
2.2.2.3 The male inflorescence and ower......Page 72
2.2.2.4 Mixed inflorescences......Page 73
2.2.2.5 Pollination......Page 74
2.2.2.6 The fruit......Page 75
2.2.2.7 The fruit bunch......Page 76
2.3 The American oil palm, Elaeis oleifera (HBK) Cortes......Page 77
2.3.2 Morphology......Page 78
2.4 The Elaeis guineensis х Elaeis oleifera hybrid......Page 80
3.2.1 Temperature......Page 83
3.2.2.1 Evapotranspiration......Page 86
3.2.2.2 The water balance and soil water......Page 89
3.2.2.3 Water deflcits......Page 90
3.2.3 Water relations and palm yield......Page 93
3.2.4 Radiation and its effects......Page 94
3.3.1 Climatic requirements for the oil palm......Page 96
3.3.3 Country and region experience......Page 100
3.4.1.2 Current general-purpose classifications......Page 101
3.4.1.3 Soil classification in South-east Asia......Page 102
3.4.2.1 System of Olivin......Page 104
3.4.3.1 Rooting depth and density......Page 105
3.4.3.2 Poorly drained (hydromorphic) soils......Page 106
3.4.3.7 Peat soils......Page 107
3.4.3.10 Very weathered and leached soils......Page 109
3.5.1.1 Malaysian soils......Page 110
3.5.2.1 Nigerian soils......Page 111
3.5.2.3 Soils of the Democratic Republic of the Congo......Page 114
3.5.3 Soils of America......Page 116
3.6 Land classification......Page 118
4.1.1.1 History of plant growth analysis......Page 119
4.1.1.3 Factors limiting growth......Page 120
4.1.2.1 Early work on oil palm......Page 121
4.1.2.3 Root biomass......Page 122
4.1.3 Non-destructive methods of measurement......Page 123
4.1.3.3 Trunk dry weight increment......Page 124
4.1.4.2 Light interception......Page 125
4.1.4.3 Photosynthesis and the conversion coefficient......Page 127
4.2.1 Vegetative growth......Page 129
4.2.2.1 Young palms......Page 131
4.2.2.2 Fruiting palms......Page 132
4.2.3 Conclusions......Page 133
4.3.1 Effects of planting density......Page 134
4.3.3 Water......Page 136
4.3.5 Palm age......Page 139
4.3.6 Pruning and defoliation......Page 140
4.3.8 Genetic variation......Page 141
4.4 Flowering......Page 143
4.4.2 Fruiting activity......Page 144
4.4.3 Inflorescence initiation......Page 145
4.4.4 Sex ratio......Page 146
4.4.5 Inflorescence abortion......Page 148
4.4.7.1 Fruit set......Page 151
4.4.7.2 Other components of bunch weight......Page 153
4.4.8 Rates of inflorescence and bunch development......Page 154
4.5.1 Yield of bunches......Page 155
4.5.3 Effects of climate and weather on yield of bunches......Page 156
4.5.5 Crop modelling......Page 157
5.1 History of selection......Page 163
5.1.1.1 Deli dura in Sumatra......Page 164
5.1.1.2 Deli dura in Malaysia......Page 166
5.1.1.3 Tenera and pisifera in Sumatra......Page 168
5.1.2 Congo......Page 170
5.1.3.1 Ivory Coast and Benin......Page 171
5.1.3.2 Nigeria......Page 172
5.1.3.3 Cameroon......Page 173
5.1.5 The emergence of the dura х pisifera cross......Page 174
5.1.6.1 Africa......Page 175
5.1.6.2 The Far East......Page 176
5.1.6.3 Latin America......Page 177
5.1.7.1 Prospection by African centres......Page 178
5.1.7.2 Prospection by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board......Page 179
5.1.7.3 Collection of Elaeis oleifera......Page 180
5.1.7.5 Conservation of breeding populations......Page 181
5.2.1.1 The need for controlled pollination......Page 182
5.2.1.2 Methods of controlled pollination......Page 183
5.2.3 Yield records and generation time......Page 184
5.2.4.1 The NIFOR method......Page 185
5.2.4.2 Variations on the method......Page 186
5.2.4.3 Future developments......Page 189
5.2.6.2 Heritabilities......Page 190
5.2.7 Selection at the immature stage......Page 192
5.2.8.1 Types of marker......Page 193
5.2.8.3 Mapping and linkage studies......Page 195
5.3 Variation and inheritance......Page 197
5.3.2 Bunch yield and its components......Page 198
5.3.3.1 Variation in shell thickness......Page 200
5.3.3.2 Oil and kernel to bunch and their components......Page 204
5.3.3.3 Other fruit characters......Page 206
5.3.4.2 Palm height......Page 207
5.3.5 Disease resistance......Page 208
5.3.6.1 Drought tolerance......Page 209
5.3.7.1 Oil composition and Elaeis oleifera hybrids......Page 210
5.3.7.3 Composition of kernel oil......Page 211
5.4.1.2 Oil or kernels?......Page 212
5.4.2.1 Reciprocal recurrent selection......Page 213
5.4.2.3 Pisifera selection......Page 215
5.4.2.4 Use of breeding values......Page 216
5.4.2.5 Inbred lines......Page 217
5.4.3 Inbreeding depression and heterosis......Page 218
5.4.4 Competition and planting density......Page 219
5.4.5.2 Clonal seed......Page 220
5.5.1.2 Comparison of AVROS and other origins......Page 221
5.5.1.3 Comparison of La Mé and Yangambi......Page 223
5.5.1.6 Interspecific hybrids......Page 224
5.5.1.7 Genotype х environment interactions......Page 225
5.5.2.1 Theoretical selection progress......Page 226
5.5.2.2 Progress in the Deli dura population......Page 227
5.6 Oil palm improvement in the future......Page 228
6.2.1 Culture on solid media......Page 231
6.2.1.1 Tissue sampling and callus formation......Page 232
6.2.1.4 Hardening and transplanting......Page 233
6.3 Abnormal flowering, bunch failure and other problems......Page 234
6.3.1.2 Causes of abnormal flowering......Page 235
6.4 Clone testing......Page 237
6.4.2 Clone yields......Page 238
6.5.1 New tissue culture methods......Page 240
6.5.3 Commercial developments......Page 241
6.6.1.1 Microspore culture......Page 242
6.6.2.1 Targets for transformation......Page 243
6.6.2.3 Transformation methods......Page 244
6.6.3 Conclusions......Page 245
7.1.1.1 Effect of temperature......Page 247
7.1.1.2 Moisture content......Page 248
7.1.3.1 Preparation of seed......Page 249
7.1.3.2 Storage of seed......Page 250
7.1.4.1 Dry heat method......Page 251
7.1.4.4 Germination abnormalities and problems......Page 253
7.1.5 Supply of seed to plantations......Page 254
7.2 Nurseries......Page 255
7.2.2 The main nursery......Page 256
7.2.2.1 The polybag nursery......Page 257
7.2.2.2 Time of planting......Page 258
7.2.2.3 Nursery maintenance......Page 259
7.2.2.4 Culling and nursery abnormalities......Page 260
7.2.4 Nursery pests and diseases......Page 261
7.2.5 Nursery costs......Page 262
8.1.3 Soil type requirements......Page 263
8.1.3.3 Rooting depth......Page 264
8.1.3.5 Soil fertility......Page 265
8.1.3.7 Multiple factors......Page 266
8.1.5.2 French/West African systems of land evaluation......Page 267
8.1.5.3 Indonesian systems of land evaluation......Page 268
8.1.5.4 Malaysian systems of land evaluation......Page 269
8.2.1 General and environmental issues......Page 272
8.2.2 Road systems......Page 275
8.2.3 Drainage systems......Page 277
8.3.1 General......Page 278
8.3.2 Burning or zero-burning......Page 279
8.3.3.1 General......Page 283
8.3.3.2 Planting from forest......Page 284
8.3.4.1 The decision to replant......Page 285
8.3.4.2 General considerations......Page 286
8.3.4.3 Underplanting the old stand......Page 288
8.3.4.4 Detailed field procedures......Page 290
8.3.5 Hilly land: platforms and terraces......Page 291
8.3.6 Preparation of peat soils......Page 293
8.4.2 Leguminous and other covers......Page 295
8.4.3.1 Establishment intercropping......Page 296
8.4.3.2 Permanent arable cropping......Page 297
8.4.3.4 Grazing regimes......Page 298
9.1.2 Method of transplanting......Page 301
9.1.4 Cultural practices at transplanting......Page 302
9.2.1 Advanced planting material......Page 304
9.3.1 Effects of plant spacing on growth and yield......Page 305
9.3.3.1 Optimal density for current yield......Page 307
9.3.3.2 Optimal density for cumulative yield or pro.t......Page 309
9.3.4 Planting patterns other than triangular......Page 310
9.3.6 Thinning......Page 311
9.3.6.2 Thinning of mature stands......Page 312
9.3.6.3 Variable density and planned thinning......Page 313
9.4.2 Costs......Page 315
10.1.2.1 Management of young palms......Page 317
10.1.2.2 Establishment and maintenance of natural cover......Page 318
10.1.2.3 Establishment and maintenance of legume covers......Page 320
10.1.2.4 Nitrogen .xation by cover plants......Page 322
10.1.3.2 Maintenance of palms......Page 323
10.1.5 Labour requirements for field operations......Page 325
10.2.1 Mechanisation of fertiliser spreading......Page 327
10.3.1 Methods of estimating irrigation requirements......Page 328
10.3.1.1 Rainfall and evapotranspiration......Page 329
10.3.2.1 Type of equipment......Page 330
10.3.3 Profitability of irrigation......Page 331
10.4.2 Harvesting of young palms......Page 332
10.4.3 Harvesting of mature palms......Page 333
10.4.4.2 Minimum ripeness standards......Page 335
10.4.5 Transportation in-field and to the mill......Page 336
10.4.6 Mechanisation of collection and in-field transport of fresh fruit bunches......Page 338
10.4.7 Need for a harvesting machine......Page 341
10.5.1 Factors affecting the oil extraction ratio......Page 342
10.5.2 Decline in oil extraction ratio in Peninsular Malaysia......Page 343
10.5.3 Possible solutions......Page 346
10.6.2 The present situation in Malaysia......Page 348
10.7.1 Definition of yield potentials......Page 349
10.7.3 Principles and calculation of site yield potential......Page 350
10.7.5 Remote sensing of palm conditions......Page 353
10.8.1.1 Malaysia: FELDA......Page 354
10.8.1.3 Papua New Guinea......Page 355
11.1.3 Plant demand......Page 357
11.1.3.1 Growth demand......Page 358
11.1.4 Nutrient content of oil palms, nutrient budgets and nutrient balance......Page 359
11.2.1.1 Root properties and nutrient uptake......Page 362
11.2.1.2 Quantity and position of oil palm root......Page 364
11.2.1.3 Root systems and nutrients......Page 365
11.2.2 Mycorrhizal infection......Page 368
11.3.1 Field experimentation: mathematical expression and treatment......Page 369
11.3.2.1 Practical considerations......Page 371
11.3.2.3 Economics of applying fertiliser......Page 372
11.3.3.2 Regional results......Page 374
11.4.1.1 Visual symptoms as a guide......Page 375
11.4.1.3 Symptoms of other deficiencies......Page 376
11.4.2 Plant composition......Page 378
11.4.3 Leaf analysis in practice......Page 380
11.4.4 Factors affecting critical levels......Page 381
11.4.5 Chlorine effects in the oil palm......Page 382
11.5.1 Soil analysis and its uses......Page 384
11.5.3 Calculation of fertiliser applications......Page 386
11.6.1.1 Nutrient balances......Page 387
11.6.1.2 Growth demand......Page 388
11.6.1.3 De.ciency demand......Page 389
11.6.1.4 Fertiliser ef.ciency in a palm plantation......Page 390
11.6.2.2 The nutrient balance......Page 392
11.6.2.3 Detailed applications: nutrient demands......Page 393
11.6.2.4 Detailed application: environmental losses......Page 395
11.6.2.6 General research to support INFERS......Page 396
11.6.3 French systems......Page 397
11.6.4.1 General structure......Page 398
11.6.4.2 Foster system A: yields without fertiliser......Page 399
11.6.4.3 Foster system A: .eld experiment data, yield response and site characteristics......Page 400
11.6.4.4 Foster system B: leaf analysis......Page 401
11.6.4.5 Total leaf cations in leaf analysis......Page 402
11.6.4.6 Soil analysis systems......Page 403
11.7.1 Replanting and the nutrients in the old stand......Page 404
11.7.2.1 Use of empty fruit bunches......Page 405
11.7.2.2 Use of palm oil mill ef.uent......Page 407
11.7.4.1 Water-based mechanisms......Page 409
11.7.4.2 Atmospheric losses......Page 410
11.7.5 Soil changes during the life of a plantation......Page 411
11.8.2 Volcanic soils......Page 412
11.8.5 Trace element deficiencies and toxicities......Page 413
11.9.1 Planting density and palm age......Page 414
11.9.2.1 General......Page 415
11.9.2.3 Phosphate......Page 416
11.9.2.6 Compound fertilisers......Page 417
11.9.4 Conclusions......Page 418
12.1 Diseases and disorders......Page 421
12.1.2.1 Cercospora leaf spot, or freckle......Page 423
12.1.2.2 Other seedling leaf diseases......Page 424
12.1.4 Seedling root diseases: blast disease......Page 425
12.1.5.1 Crown disease......Page 426
12.1.5.2 Leaf wither, Pestalotiopsis leaf spot or grey leaf blight......Page 427
12.1.5.4 Leaf mottle (mancha anular)......Page 429
12.1.6 Stem and root diseases......Page 430
12.1.6.1 Dry basal rot......Page 431
12.1.6.2 Fusarium wilt or vascular wilt......Page 432
12.1.6.3 Ganoderma trunk rot or basal stem rot......Page 437
12.1.6.4 Marchitez sorpresiva, sudden wither or ‘hartrot’......Page 443
12.1.6.5 Upper stem rot......Page 444
12.1.6.6 Red ring disease......Page 445
12.1.7 Diseases of the bud or stem apex......Page 446
12.1.7.2 Fatal yellowing or lethal bud rot (pudrición de cogollo, amarelecimento fatal)......Page 447
12.1.9 Other abnormal conditions......Page 451
12.2 Pests......Page 452
12.2.1.1 Pest ecology......Page 453
12.2.1.4 Control measures......Page 457
12.2.4.1 Oryctes species (Dynastinae): rhinoceros beetles......Page 458
12.2.4.2 Strategus aloeus (Dynastinae)......Page 461
12.2.5 Leaf pests of mature palms......Page 462
12.2.5.1 Leaf-eating caterpillars......Page 463
12.2.5.2 Bagworms......Page 464
12.2.5.5 Leaf miner, Coelaenomenodera lameensis (C. minuta, C. elaeidis)......Page 466
12.2.6.1 Rhynchophorus species (Curculionidae): palm weevils......Page 467
12.2.7.1 Oil palm root miner......Page 468
12.2.8.3 Demotispa neivai......Page 469
12.3.1 Rats......Page 470
12.5.1 Pests attacking pollinating weevils......Page 473
12.5.2 Pests attacking legume cover crops]......Page 474
13.1.1 Palm oil composition......Page 475
13.1.2 Fatty acid composition and structure......Page 476
13.1.4 Non-triglyceride constituents......Page 478
13.3.1 Kernel oil formation......Page 479
13.3.2 Palm oil formation......Page 480
13.4.1 The extraction process......Page 481
13.4.3.1 Fruit reception......Page 482
13.4.3.2 Sterilisation......Page 483
13.4.3.5 Pressing......Page 484
13.4.3.7 Kernel handling......Page 485
13.4.4 Small-scale mills......Page 486
13.4.5.2 Process control......Page 489
13.4.6.1 Free fatty acids......Page 490
13.4.7 Extraction of minor components......Page 491
13.4.8.1 Liquid ef.uent......Page 492
13.4.8.2 Solid wastes......Page 493
13.6.1 Biomass......Page 494
13.6.2 Palm wine......Page 495
13.6.3 Animal feed......Page 496
14.1.1 International trade......Page 497
14.1.3 Factors causing distortions of markets......Page 498
14.2.2 Production costs of competing oils......Page 499
14.3.1 Importance of oil composition......Page 500
14.3.2 Range of palm oil and kernel oil products......Page 501
14.3.3.2 Hydrogenation......Page 502
14.3.4 Use of palm oil for edible purposes......Page 503
14.3.6.1 Oleochemicals......Page 504
14.4.1 Oils and fats in human nutrition......Page 505
14.5 Conclusions......Page 506
15.2 Genetic modification......Page 509
15.3.2 Loss of forest......Page 510
15.3.5 Biodiversity......Page 511
Reference list and index of citations......Page 513
Index......Page 573
Color Plate Section......Page 593