The Nature of Cognition (Bradford Books)

The Nature of Cognition......Page 1
CONTENTS......Page 4
PREFACE......Page 6
References......Page 9
I GENERAL ISSUES IN COGNITION......Page 10
Revolutions Old and New......Page 11
Two Theories of Dualism......Page 12
Science Studies Systems......Page 15
An Example......Page 16
A Computational View of Cognition......Page 21
Sublevels within the Computational System: The Black Box Problem in Engineering Terms......Page 25
Algorithm B......Page 28
Psycholinguistics as an Illustration of the Need for Different Levels of Psychological Theories......Page 29
Neuropsychological Studies of Language......Page 30
Computational Models of Language......Page 32
Language Use at the Representational Level......Page 38
A Summary of the Three Levels of Cognitive Theories......Page 42
Replacing Computational Concepts with Neuroscience Concepts......Page 43
The Situated Cognition Objection to the Three-Level View......Page 48
What Might Future Theories Look Like?......Page 51
Notes......Page 53
References......Page 55
2 A Dialectical Basis for Understanding the Study of Cognition......Page 58
The Dialectical Progression of Ideas......Page 59
Ancient Classical Greece and Rome (600–300 B.C.)......Page 60
The Early Christian Era (A.D. 200–450) and the Middle Ages (A.D. 400–1300)......Page 64
The Renaissance (Rebirth) of Criticism (A.D. 1300s–1600s) and the Nascence (Birth) of Science......Page 66
Descartes and Locke (1600s–1750)......Page 67
Mill and Kant (1750–1800)......Page 68
Merging of Philosophy and Physiology into Modern Psychology (1800s–1900s)......Page 70
Structuralism......Page 71
Functionalism: An Alternative to Structuralism......Page 73
Pragmatism: An Outgrowth of Functionalism......Page 74
Associationism: An Integrative Synthesis......Page 76
Origins of Behaviorism......Page 77
Watson\'s Groundwork......Page 78
Hull\'s Synthesis with Pavlovian Conditioning......Page 79
Skinner\'s Radicalism......Page 80
Gestalt Psychology......Page 81
Cognitivism......Page 82
Acknowledgments......Page 83
References......Page 84
A Word about Words......Page 86
Framing the Issues......Page 89
Nominalism, Realism, and the Problem of Universals......Page 92
Empiricism, Materialism, and Skepticism......Page 93
\"Essentialism\" and Personal Identity......Page 99
Intuitionism and Rationalism: The Measured Reply......Page 102
The Kantian \"a priori\"......Page 107
Rationalism and Empiricism—Are There Implications for Cognitive Psychology?......Page 110
Notes......Page 113
References......Page 116
II REPRESENTATION AND PROCESS IN COGNITION......Page 118
4 Single-Code versus Multiple-Code Theories in Cognition......Page 119
What Are Mental Representations?......Page 120
Are Mental Representations Necessary?......Page 121
Single-Code versus Multiple-Code Theories of Knowledge Representation......Page 122
Single-Code Theories......Page 123
Multiple-Code Theories......Page 127
The Imagery Debate......Page 130
Summary and Conclusions......Page 137
References......Page 138
5 Domain-Generality versus Domain-Specificity in Cognition......Page 142
Domain-Generality versus Domain-Specificity: Navigating through the Theoretical Morass......Page 143
What Are DG-DS Debates All About?......Page 145
Internal versus External Constraints......Page 148
Process versus Structure Constraints......Page 149
Static versus Dynamic Constraints......Page 150
The Consequences of Contrasting Constraint Dimensions......Page 151
Summary......Page 152
The Nature of Expertise......Page 153
Summary......Page 159
Human Development......Page 160
Emphasis on Domain-Specific Innate Constraints......Page 161
Emphasis on Domain-General Innate Constraints......Page 162
Emphasis on Domain-Specific Acquired Constraints......Page 164
Emphasis on Domain-General Acquired Constraints......Page 165
General Comments on the Debates......Page 167
Conclusions......Page 169
References......Page 171
Conscious and Unconscious Cognition......Page 178
Automatic versus Controlled Processing......Page 179
Intentionality and Cognitive Resources......Page 182
Toward a Psychology of Zombies?......Page 183
Implicit versus Explicit Memory......Page 185
Taxonomy of Memory Tasks......Page 186
Theories of Implicit Memory......Page 189
Extensions of the Explicit-Implicit Distinction to Other Cognitive Domains......Page 193
Explicit versus Implicit Perception......Page 194
Explicit versus Implicit Thought......Page 197
Unconscious Processes versus Nonconscious Contents......Page 199
Note......Page 201
References......Page 202
Introduction......Page 209
Models and Model Classes......Page 210
History......Page 211
Prototype Model......Page 212
Evidence for the Prototype View......Page 213
Problems with the Prototype View......Page 215
Exemplar Model......Page 216
Evidence for the Exemplar View......Page 218
Final Comments on the Exemplar View......Page 219
Empirical Evidence for a Combined View......Page 220
Selective Attention in Exemplar Models......Page 224
Exemplar-Based Abstractions......Page 225
Rational Model......Page 226
PDP Models of Categorization......Page 228
Different Category Levels......Page 229
Different Types of Categories......Page 231
Use of Categories......Page 232
Prototype View......Page 233
Exemplar View......Page 234
Combined Views......Page 235
Specificity and Generality in Cognition......Page 236
Summary and Conclusions......Page 238
References......Page 240
III METHODOLOGY IN COGNITION......Page 246
8 Computational Modeling of High-Level Cognition versus Hypothesis Testing......Page 247
AI\'s Approach: An Example from Chess......Page 248
How Chess Programs Work......Page 249
Cognitive Architectures......Page 251
Production Systems......Page 252
An Example......Page 253
Connectionist Architectures......Page 256
Hybrid Models......Page 259
Sharpening Conceptual Issues: Cognitive Modules......Page 260
The Capacity-Constrained Activation Theory......Page 262
A Model of Sentence Processing......Page 269
Modules Revisited......Page 270
Intelligent Tutoring versus Expert Systems......Page 274
ACT-R and Intelligent Tutoring......Page 275
Cognitive Lesioning......Page 277
Agrammatic Aphasia......Page 278
Individual Differences......Page 279
A Unified Theory of Cognition......Page 281
SOAR......Page 283
Models: Computational versus Verbal......Page 285
Evaluating Computational Models......Page 286
Sensitivity Analysis......Page 288
Evaluating Modeling as an Approach......Page 289
Acknowledgments......Page 291
References......Page 292
Discovering the Organization of Cognition: The Search for Dissociations......Page 296
Background and Technique......Page 299
Example: Identifying Memory Systems......Page 300
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lesion Studies in Humans......Page 302
Background and Technique......Page 304
Example: Selective Attention......Page 306
Advantages and Disadvantages of ERP Studies......Page 308
Background and Technique......Page 310
Example: Mental Imagery......Page 313
Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Neuroimaging......Page 315
Conclusions about Brain and Behavioral Studies of Cognition......Page 317
References......Page 320
10 Response Time versus Accuracy in Human Memory......Page 324
Accuracy and Interresponse Times in Free Recall......Page 325
Semantic Clustering......Page 328
Exponential Increase in IRTs......Page 329
Analysis of Memory under Conditions of High Accuracy......Page 331
RT and Accuracy in Implicit Sequence Learning and Explicit Sequence Prediction......Page 333
Accuracy and RT analysis of the Ranschburg Effect......Page 335
The Subspan Item-Recognition Task......Page 338
Task Analysis Using Accuracy and RT Data......Page 345
Complications Introduced by the Possibility of Speed-Accuracy Trade-offs......Page 348
Implications of Only Observing RTs......Page 349
Necessary Conditions for Safe Ordinal Conclusions......Page 351
Quantitative Interpretational Difficulties......Page 352
SAT Curves in the Study of Human Memory......Page 353
Criticisms of the SAT Approach and the Response Signal Procedure......Page 357
Performance Curves to Investigate Visual Information Acquisition......Page 358
An Example: Using Performance Curves to Investigate Effects of Priming......Page 359
Possibility-1 Prediction: Horizontally Parallel Curves......Page 360
Possibility-2 Prediction: Constant-Ratio Diverging Curves......Page 362
Models of RT Data in Human Memory......Page 363
Unidimensional Strength Theory of Recognition (or Signal Detection Theory)......Page 364
The Diffusion Model......Page 367
Connectionist Models......Page 369
Conclusions: Are Accuracy and RT Data Two Sides of the Same Coin?......Page 371
Notes......Page 374
References......Page 376
11 Laboratory versus Field Approaches to Cognition......Page 386
Context......Page 388
Cognition in and out of Context......Page 390
Physical Context......Page 394
Familiarity of Task......Page 395
Knowledge as a Context......Page 397
Social Context......Page 398
Socioemotional Context......Page 399
Considerations Regarding IQ and Transfer......Page 400
Notes......Page 405
References......Page 406
Intellectual versus Practical Motivation in Mathematics......Page 410
The Interdependence of Science and Engineering......Page 414
The Fuzzy Line between Basic and Applied Research......Page 415
Practical and Theoretical Roots of Experimental Psychology......Page 418
How Research is Supported......Page 419
Why Do People Do Research?......Page 422
How Do Researchers Decide What Research to Do?......Page 424
How Should Researchers Decide What Research To Do?......Page 425
Justifying Research......Page 429
Judging the Value of Research Results......Page 433
Applied Experimental Psychology......Page 438
Opportunities for Cognitive Research with Both Theoretical and Practical Implications......Page 439
Recap......Page 442
References......Page 443
IV KINDS OF COGNITION......Page 446
13 Inferential versus Ecological Approaches to Perception......Page 447
Inferential Approaches to Perception......Page 449
The Ecological Approach to Perception......Page 459
Concluding Remarks......Page 469
References......Page 471
14 Implicit versus Explicit Learning......Page 474
Some Philosophical Meanderings......Page 476
Evolutionary Biology......Page 477
Developmental Considerations......Page 478
Neuroanatomical Considerations......Page 479
How Implicit Learning Is Studied......Page 482
Artificial Grammar Learning......Page 483
The Core Issues......Page 484
On Awareness......Page 485
Representational Form, or What Is Being Learned in an Implicit-Learning Experiment......Page 488
Individual and Developmental Differences......Page 492
Neuropsychological Issues......Page 495
Role of Attention......Page 498
Implicit Motor Learning......Page 499
Formal Models of Implicit Learning......Page 500
Affect and Implicit Learning......Page 502
Summary......Page 503
References......Page 504
15 Multi-Store versus Dynamic Models of Temporary Storage in Memory......Page 513
Multi-Store Model......Page 514
Forgetting......Page 515
Transfer of Information to Long-Term Store......Page 518
Coding......Page 519
Neuropsychological Evidence......Page 520
Problems with the Multi-Store Model......Page 521
Working Memory......Page 524
Slave Systems......Page 525
Central Executive......Page 527
Other Approaches to Working Memory......Page 529
Working Memory Capacity and the Central Executive......Page 532
Measurement Issues with Working Memory......Page 537
Working Memory Capacity and the Frontal Lobes12......Page 540
Notes......Page 543
References......Page 544
Forms of Rationality......Page 554
Limitations on the Assessment of Rationality......Page 556
Minimal Rationality......Page 559
The Value of Error......Page 560
Some Deviations from Ideal Rationality......Page 561
Reliance on Memory......Page 562
Reliance on Similarity......Page 564
Reliance on Positive Tests......Page 567
Bounded Rationality......Page 570
Natural Assessment Methods......Page 572
Rule-Based Thinking......Page 573
Associative Thinking......Page 574
Probability versus Frequency......Page 576
Education......Page 577
Notes......Page 578
References......Page 579
17 Formal Rules versus Mental Models in Reasoning......Page 583
Background to the Controversy......Page 584
The Distinction between Syntax and Semantics......Page 587
Formal Rule Theories......Page 591
Evidence for Formal Rule Theories......Page 596
The Mental Model Theory......Page 598
One-Model Problems Are Easier than Multiple-Model Problems......Page 604
Systematic Errors Correspond to Initial Models of Premises......Page 607
Knowledge Influences the Process of Reasoning......Page 608
Truth and Fallacies in Reasoning......Page 610
Conclusions......Page 615
Note......Page 617
References......Page 618
18 Cognition versus Metacognition......Page 621
Ease-of-Learning Judgments......Page 625
Feeling-of-Knowing Judgments......Page 626
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring......Page 627
Allocation of Self-Paced Study during Acquisition......Page 628
Strategy Employed during Self-Paced Study......Page 629
Control of Initiating One\'s Retrieval......Page 630
Neuropsychological Patients......Page 631
Normal Subjects in Extreme Environments......Page 632
Consciousness and Metacognition......Page 634
References......Page 635
V GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN COGNITION......Page 638
19 Culture-Free versus Culture-Based Measures of Cognition......Page 639
Nineteenth-Century Beliefs about Culture and Cognitive Ability......Page 640
Enter Psychology......Page 643
Enter Testing......Page 645
Binet\'s Strategy......Page 647
A Thought Experiment in Test Construction......Page 650
Some Implications for the Notion of a Culture-Free Test......Page 656
References......Page 657
20 Heredity versus Environment as the Basis of Cognitive Ability......Page 659
Genes versus Environment: The Paradigm......Page 660
Phenotype......Page 661
Causal Components of the Phenotypic Variance1......Page 662
Familial Resemblance......Page 663
Environmental Influences (E): Types and Effects......Page 666
When the Two Are Brought Together: Gene-Environment Effects (G × E)......Page 667
Gene-Environment Correlations......Page 668
Genotype × Environment Interaction......Page 669
Assortative Mating......Page 670
Environmentality......Page 671
Heritability and Environmentality Apply to a Population, Not to One Individual......Page 672
Heritability and Environmentality Do Not Say Much about Means......Page 673
Heritability and Environmentality Do Not Refer to Modification and Intervention......Page 674
Family Studies......Page 675
Twin Studies......Page 676
Adoption/Separation Studies......Page 677
Summary Comments......Page 678
What Have We Learned about Heritability of Specific Cognitive Abilities?......Page 680
Concluding Remarks......Page 684
References......Page 685
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 691
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A......Page 709
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