The Middle Stone Age of Nigeria in its West African Context

Cover
Contents
Copyright Page
	Bookmark 3
Title Page
Contents
	List of Figures
	Chapter 1
		Geography
		Geology and Geomorphology
		The Middle Stone Age in West Africa: Introduction
		Vegetation and Climate
		Climatic and Environmental History
		Archaeological perspectives
		Institutional Framework
		References
			Climatic and Environmental History
			Geography
			Geology and Geomorphology
			Vegetation and Climate
			Archaeological perspectives
			Institutional Framework
	Chapter 2
		The Middle Stone Age of Nigeria
		Northern Nigeria
		Zenabi
			Introduction
			Site situation and stratigraphy
				(1) Earlier investigations
				(2) Results of work done in 1976-1978
				(3) 1976-78 and Jos Museum collections
				(4) Nature of the industry
		Conclusion
			Mai Lumba
			Yada Gungume
			Tibchi
			Yelwa
			Ningi Hills
			Banke
			Saminaka
			Nok
			Pingell
			Rop
		Summary
			Sangoan
		Southern Nigeria
			The Bodija Formation
			Ajibode
			Olude-Araromi
			Asejire
		References
			Northern Nigeria
			Southern Nigeria
		Summary
	Chapter 3
		Cameroun
			Northern Cameroun
			Southern Cameroun
		The Middle Stone Age in West Africa
		Niger
			Adrar Bous
			Bilma
			Seggédim
			Mékrou Valley
		Ghana
			Asokrochona, the Ghana Nautical College, and Tema
			Other sites in Ghana
		Ivory Coast
			Attinguié and Anyama
			South-west Ivory Coast
		Sierra Leone
			Dated deposits in the mining areas
			The alluvial sequence in the mining areas
			Yengema cave
			Artefacts recovered from the alluvial deposits
		Mali
		Summary
		Senegal
			West and South
			North and East
		Guinea
		Summary
		Conclusion
		References
			Cameroun
			Ghana
			Niger
			Ivory Coast
			Mali
			Senegal
			Sierra Leone
			Guinea
	Chapter 4
		West Africa: regional summary
		References
	Chapter 5
		A wider perspective
		Climate
		Archaeology
		Human Evolution
		Conclusion
		References
			Archaeology
			Climate
			Human Evolution
		Envoi
Figure 1.  West Africa: Political boundaries.
Figure 2.  West Africa: Geographical features.
Figure 3.  West Africa: Geology.
Figure 4.  Vegetation zones of Nigeria (after Keay, 1965).
Figure 5.  Vegetation zones of West Africa.
Table 1. The pluvial and inter-pluvial system as assumed to exist in Africa (after Clark, 1959, Table 2).
Figure 6.   Oxygen isotope stages and the palaeomagnetic time scale (after Smart and Frances, 1991, Fig. 9.1).
Figure 7.  Palynological and stratigraphic record at lake Bosumtwi (after Miller and Gosling, 2014, Fig. 2).
Figure 8.  Preferential and recurrent Levallois techniques (after Boëda, 1994, Fig. 176).
Figure 9.  Nubian cores (1 and 2), ‘classic’ and Halfan cores (3 and 4) (after Van Peer, 1991, Fig. 3).
Figure 10.  The study area north of the Jos Plateau.
Figure 11.  The Younger Granite Ring Complexes of Nigeria (after Turner 1976, Fig. 1).
Figure 12.  The Younger Granite Ring Complexes of Niger (after Ngako et al., 2006, Fig. 3).
Figure 13.  The area north of the Jos Plateau: Physical Geography.
Figure 14.  The area north of the Jos Plateau: Geology.
Figure 15.  Alluvial tin-mining at Nok (after Fagg 1977, Frontispiece).
Figure 16.  Geological sketch map of Zenabi (after Bond, 1956, 201).
Figure 17.  Carbonised tree trunk in Zenabi No.1 Paddock (after Fagg, 1956, Fig. 6).
Figure 18.  Zenabi sections A, B, and C (after Anozie, 1975, Fig. 16).
Figure 19.  Zenabi Fulata, 23 March 1976.
Figure 20.  Zenabi Fulata, 23 March 1976, in situ find.
Figure 21.  Zenabi Fulata, 23 March 1976, in situ find.
Figure 22.  Zenabi Falls, March 1976.
Figure 23.  Zenabi Falls, July 1976.
Figure 24.  Zenabi contour map showing mining leases 3741, 9282, and 5174.
Figure 25.  Zenabi plan as surveyed in 1976-1978 with position of sections 1, 2, and 3.
Figure 26.  Zenabi sections 1-3, 1976 and 1978.
Table 2. Zenabi Section 1 stratigraphy 1976-1978.
Figure 27.  Zenabi Fulata, work in progress, July 1976.
Figure 28.  Zenabi Fulata, section1.
Figure 29.  Zenabi Fulata, section 2.
Figure 30.  Zenabi Tudo, March 1976.
Table 3. Zenabi artefact inventory.
Figure 31.  Zenabi Fulata.  1, limace.  2, angle burin.  3, double sidescraper on Levallois flake/blade. [PAJ 1980 Fig. 1. ABC].
Figure 32.  Zenabi Fulata.  3, 1-platform flake/blade core.  5, endscraper.  Zenabi Karara.  1, transverse convex sidescraper.  2, Levallois point.  4, disc core.  [PAJ 1980 Fig. 2. ABCDE].
Figure 33.  Zenabi Fulata 1976.  1 and 4, transverse and straight sidescrapers.  Zenabi Fulata 1977, finds derived from 1976 section, upper tinwash.  2, limace.  3, flake.
Figure 34.  Zenabi Fulata 1978.  Lower tinwash, upper series.  2, plain platform flake.  3, waste flake.  Base of deep sounding.  1, core-like chunk.  4, flake/blade.  5, waste flake.
Figure 35.  Zenabi Fulata 1977, finds derived from 1976 section, upper tinwash.  Initial/preparatory core.
Figure 36.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP56/33.  Initial Levallois core.
Figure 37.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP56/33.  Levallois flake/blade core.
Figure 38.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  C.  Levallois flake core.
Figure 39.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP56/33.  1, Levallois core.  Karara.  2, Levallois flake core.
Figure 40.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  A47/10.  1, Levallois flake core.  ZNP 1962.  2, Levallois point core.  Z ‘west of spur’ 1948.  3, 1-platform flake/blade core.  C47/10.  4, Levallois flake core.
Figure 41.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  A. 1-platform flake/blade core.  C.  2, 1-platform blade core.
Figure 42.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  B47/10.  1 and 2, 1-platform flake/blade cores.  Karara 1948.  3, 1-platform ‘boat-shape’ core.  A ‘in situ’.  4, 2-platform flake/blade core.
Figure 43.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  Karara ‘1/2 mile north of bridge’.  Disc core.
Figure 44.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP 1962 ‘L.G.’.  Disc core.
Figure 45.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP 1964.  1, disc core.  MP56/34 ‘B.G.’.  2, disc core.  Karara 1948.  3, disc core.
Figure 46.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  Fulata.  1, Levallois flake.  C47/10.  2, Levallois flake.  Karara.  3, Levallois flake/point.  A47/10.  4, Levallois blade.
Figure 47.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  ZR ‘gravel’ 1962.  1, Levallois flake.  Karara 1948.  2, Levallois flake.  MP56/33.  3, Levallois blade.  D.  4, retouched Levallois flake.  ZNP 1962. 5, Levallois flake/blade.
Figure 48.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  A47/10.  1, overshot blade.  C.  2, overshot flake.  ZMP 56/33.  3, pseudo-levallois point.  Karara.  4, pseudo-levallois point.  5, blade.
Figure 49.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  A.  1, limace.  Karara 1948.  2, limace.  3, flake.
Figure 50.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  ZNP 1962.  1, limace.  ZR 1962.  2, endscraper.  Karara.  3, endscraper.  A.  4, endscraper.
Figure 51.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP56/33.  1, transverse convex sidescraper.  Karara.  2, multiple canted sidescraper.  A.  3, multiple dihedral burin.  4, burin on retouched truncation.
Figure 52.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  ‘No.1 middle gravels I/S’.  1, convergent sidescraper with alternate retouch.  ZR 1962 ‘I/S gravels’.  2, notch.  ZMP.  3, canted sidescraper.  Karara.  4, double sidescraper.
Figure 53.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  MP56/33.  1, trihedral.  Karara.  2, double sidescraper.
Figure 54.  Zenabi, Jos Museum.  ZMP.  1, trihedral.  B.  2, canted sidescraper on Levallois flake.
Figure 55.  Zenabi Fulata 1976.  1, canted sidescraper.  2, transverse convex sidescraper.  3, sidescraper on ventral surface.  Zenabi Tudo 1968.  4, Levallois point.
Figure 56.  Zenabi Tudo.  1, disc core.  2, pseudo-levallois point.  3, Levallois flake.  4, Levallois blade.
Table 4. Zenabi artefact measurements.
Figure 57.  Tibchi and Mai Lumba and their position in relation to the Tibchi and Yeli hills.
Figure 58.  Mai Lumba lease 988, 24 March 1976.
Figure 59.  Mai Lumba lease 988, 24 March 1976.
Figure 60.  Mai Lumba lease 963, ‘kafanchan’ working, June 1976.
Table 5. Mai Lumba lease 988.  Stratigraphy, sections 1-4.
Figure 61.  Mai Lumba lease 988, 21 April 1978.
Figure 62.  Mai Lumba lease 988, 21 April 1978.
Figure 63.  Mai Lumba 1976-1978 lease 988, plan and sections 1-4.
Figure 64.  Mai Lumba lease 988, pump in operation, 15 April 1978.
Figure 65.  Mai Lumba lease 988, section 1, 23 April 1978.
Figure 66.  Mai Lumba lease 988, section 1, 23 April 1978.
Figure 67.  Mai Lumba lease 988, section 2, 24 April 1978.
Figure 68.  Mai Lumba lease 988, section 2, 25 April 1978.
Figure 69.  Mai Lumba lease 988, section 3, 29 April 1978.
Figure 70.  Mai Lumba lease 988, section 3, 29 April 1978.
Figure 71.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 2, Levallois blade and flake/blade.  3, Levallois blade core.  4, convergent sidescraper.  [PAJ 1986 Fig. 9.2].
Figure 72.  Mai Lumba.  1, Levallois flake core [PAJ 1986 Fig. 9.4.1].  2, flake/blade.  3 and 4, flakes.  5, disc core.  2-5, excavated 1978, 2-4 upper tinwash, 5 lower tinwash.
Table 6. Mai Lumba and Yada Gungume.  Artefact inventory.
Figure 73.  Mai Lumba.  Initial core.
Figure 74.  Mai Lumba.  Levallois cores.  1, flake/point core.  2-3, flake cores.  4, 2-platform flake/blade core.
Figure 75.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 2, 2-platform flake/blade cores, 2 struck from opposing directions.
Figure 76.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 4, 2-platform flake/blade cores.  2 and 3, 1-platform flake/blade cores.
Figure 77.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 2, disc cores.  3 and 4, 1-platform flake/blade cores.
Figure 78.  Mai Lumba.  1-4, disc cores.
Figure 79.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 4, Levallois points.  2-3 and 5, Levallois flake/blades.
Figure 80.  Mai Lumba.  1-6, Levallois flakes and flake/blades.
Figure 81.  Mai Lumba.  1-5, Levallois flakes.
Figure 82.  Mai Lumba.  1, flake/blade.  2-4, flakes.
Figure 83.  Mai Lumba.  2, blade.  1, 3-4, flakes.
Figure 84.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 2, convex and double sidescrapers.  3, pseudo-levallois point.  4-5, overshot flake/blades.
Figure 85.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 5, sidescrapers on ventral surface.  2 and 3, straight and convex sidescrapers.  4, Levallois flake/blade.
Figure 86.  Mai Lumba.  1 and 3, broken ground stone axes.  4, Mai Lumba Tudo, double/convergent sidescraper.
Figure 87.  Mai Lumba.  1, transverse convex sidescraper.  2, convergent sidescraper.  3, broken ground stone axe.
Figure 88.  Mai Lumba.  Biface.
Figure 89.  Mai Lumba lease 988, ground stone axe.
Figure 90.  Mai Lumba lease 988, ground stone axes.
Figure 91.  Mai Lumba, disc and 2-platform Levallois flake/blade core.
Figure 92.  Mai Lumba, disc and Levallois flake core.
Figure 93.  Mai Lumba, 2-platform flake/blade cores.
Figure 94.  Mai Lumba, microsyenite initial core.
Figure 95.  Mai Lumba, rare raw materials at the site.
Figure 96.  Tibchi 1976 paddock, plan and sections.
Figure 97.  Tibchi, general view of paddock, 2 July 1976.
Figure 98.  Tibchi, section 1, 2 July 1976.
Figure 99.  Tibchi, tin-miners removing lower tin-wash, 2 July 1976.
Figure 100.  Tibchi, section 2, 2 July 1976.
Figure 101.  Yada Gungume.  1, biface.  Tibchi.  2, 2-platform core.  3, sidescraper on ventral surface.
Table 7. Tibchi 1976 paddock. Stratigraphy sections 1 and 2.
Figure 102.  Tibchi.  1, disc core.  2, Levallois/disc core.  3 and 4, disc cores.
Table 8. Yelwa and Tibchi.  Artefact inventory.
Figure 103.  Tibchi.  1, Levallois flake core.  2, Levallois/disc core.  3, 1-platform core/chopper.  4, 1-platform core.
Figure 104.  Tibchi.  1, 1-platform core.  2, Levallois blade.  3, Levallois flake/blade.  4, overshot Levallois flake/blade.
Figure 105.  Tibchi.  1, blade.  2 and 5, flake/blades.  3 and 7, Levallois flakes.  4, convex sidescraper.  6, Levallois blade.  8, pseudo-levallois point.
Figure 106.  Tibchi.  1, pseudo-levallois point.  2, 5 and 6, flakes.  3, canted sidescraper.  4, transverse convex sidescraper.  7, blade.
Figure 107.  Tibchi.  1, convergent sidescraper/limace.  2, transverse convex sidescraper.  3, sidescraper on ventral surface.  4, straight sidescraper with thinned back.
Figure 108.  Tibchi.  1, double sidescraper/limace.  2, canted sidescraper/core.  3, limace.
Figure 109.  Tibchi.  1, limace.  2, concave sidescraper.  3, biface.
Figure 110.  Tibchi.  Canted sidescraper/limace.
Figure 111.  Tibchi.  1, limace.  2 and 3, transverse convex sidescrapers.
Figure 112.  Tibchi, limaces (L and R), dorsal view.
Figure 113.  Tibchi, limace (L), side view.
Figure 115.  Yelwa 1978 lease 4311, plan and section.
Figure 116.  Yelwa village, March 1977.
Table 9. Yelwa lease 4311.  Stratigraphy.
Figure 117.  Yelwa lease 4311, general view, 10 April 1978.
Figure 118.  Yelwa lease 4311, mining work in progress, 10 April 1978.
Figure 119.  Yelwa, Jos Museum.  1, limace.  3 and 4, transverse convex sidescrapers.  2, YMP 1962, blade.
Figure 120.  Yelwa, Jos Museum.  YMP LG 1962.  1, initial core.  2, 1-platform flake/blade core.  Yelwa 56/31.  3, disc core.  4, convergent sidescraper.
Figure 121.  Yelwa 1978.  1, 2-platform core.  2, disc core.  3, 1-platform flake/blade core.
Figure 122.  Yelwa 1978.  1, 1-platform flake/blade core.  2, flake.
Figure 123.  Yelwa 1978.  Initial/preparatory core, in situ in tinwash.
Figure 124.  Ningi Hills: Physical Geography.
Figure 125.  Ningi Hills: Geology.
Figure 126.  Koluki, 2 May 1978.
Table 10. Ningi Hills.  Artefact inventory.
Figure 127.  Koluki, 2 May 1978.
Figure 128.  Old Ningi, 9 May 1978.
Figure 129.  Jigawa, 8 May 1978.
Figure 130.  Jigawa.  1, Levallois flake/blade core.  2 and 5, disc cores.  3 and 6, 1-platform flake/blade cores.  4, flake/blade.
Figure 131.  Jigawa.  1 and 2, disc cores.
Figure 132.  Jigawa.  1, disc core.  2 and 4, Levallois flakes.  3, Levallois blade.  5, flake.  6 and 7, blades.
Figure 133.  Koluki.  1, 1-platform flake/blade core.  Tsofon Ningi.  2, Levallois flake/blade core.  Jigawa.  3 and 6, flakes.  4, straight sidescraper on Levallois flake/blade.  5, bifacial sidescraper.
Figure 134.  Tabela.  1 and 4, 1-platform flake/blade cores.  2, disc core.  3, Levallois flake/blade core.  5, Levallois blade.
Figure 135.  Tabela.  1, convex sidescraper.  2, disc core.  3, flake, in situ upper tinwash.  4, endscraper.  5, Levallois flake.
Figure 136.  Jigawa, disc cores.
Figure 137.  Banke, general view looking north, 27 March 1977.
Figure 138.  Banke, map showing position of leases on river Marwan Karini.
Figure 139.  Banke, plan of paddocks in lease 13468 over the period 1976-1978, with sections 1-3 and location of samples for radiocarbon dating.
Figure 140.  Banke, NW and SE paddocks, 29 December 1976.
Figure 141.  Banke, SW extension paddock, 8 April 1978.
Figure 142.  Banke, quartz handaxe (July 1976) and perforated stone artefact (June 1977).
Figure 143.  Banke, SE paddock 29 December 1976, clay horizon above the upper tin-wash.
Figure 144.  Banke, SE paddock 27 March 1977, water pump in action.
Figure 145.  Banke, SE paddock 27 March 1977, clay horizon and lower tin-wash.
Figure 146.  Banke, SE paddock 27 March 1977, tree trunk fallen from clay horizon above the upper tin-wash.
Figure 147.  Banke, sections 1 and 2 (SE paddock) and 3 (SW extension paddock).
Figure 148.  Banke, section 3 (SW extension paddock) with tree trunk above the upper tin-wash.
Table 11. Banke lease 13468. Stratigraphy, sections 1-3.
Figure 149.  Banke, two cleavers found in April 1978.
Figure 150.  Banke.  1 and 4, 1-platform flake/blade cores.  2 and 3, disc cores.  5, blade with marginal retouch/sidescraper.
Figure 151.  Banke.  1, disc core.  2, endscraper.  3, ground stone axe in course of manufacture.  4, broken half of ground stone axe in course of manufacture.  5, Levallois blade.  6, notch/denticulate.  7, transverse sidescraper.
Figure 152.  Banke.  1, apparent roughout for ground stone axe.  2, 1-platform initial core.  3, perforated stone artefact.
Figure 153.  Banke.  Cleaver.
Table 12. Banke lease 13468.  Artefact inventory.
Figure 154.  Saminaka, April 1982.
Figure 155.  Saminaka map (after Opadeji 2001, Fig. 2).
Figure 156.  Saminaka sketch of cross-section (after Opadeji 2001, Fig. 13).
Table 13. Saminaka Stone Age (SSA) Artefact Inventory.
Figure 157.  Sketch map of the Nok Valley (after Fagg 1956, Fig. 9).
Figure 158.  Hypothetical section of the Nok Valley (after Fagg 1956, Fig. 8).
Figure 159.  Nok valley, 27 March 1976.
Figure 160.  Nok abandoned paddock, 27 March 1976.
Figure 161.  Pingell, April 1976.
Figure 162.  Pingell, April 1976.
Figure 163.  Distribution of Sangoan sites in Northern Nigeria (adapted from Soper, 1965, 184-185).
Table 14. Nigerian Sangoan assemblages(after Soper, 1965, Table III).
Figure 164.  Sangoan tools (descriptions after Soper, 1965, Figs. E, G, and J). 1, Keffi, quartz push-plane.  2, Yumu, quartz handaxe.  3, Nassarawa, quartz handaxe.  4, Jebba, large quartzite pick.
Figure 165.  Jebba. Locality 4, December 1983.
Figure 166.  Jebba. Locality 3, December 1983.
Figure 167.  Jebba. Locality 3, artefact horizon indicated by Arthur Harding.
Figure 168.  Jebba. Locality 3, artefact horizon.
Figure 169.  Jebba. 1-platform quartzite core.
Figure 170.  Jebba.  sidescraper, pseudo-levallois point, two flakes.
Figure 171.  Jebba.  two flake/blade cores, one round scraper.
Figure 172.  Jebba.  quartzite biface pick, quartz uniface pick.
Figure 173.  Jebba.  quartzite pebbles/choppers.
Figure 174.  Geological Map of Ibadan (after Burke and Durotoye, and Kiladejo, 1980, Fig. 2).
Figure 175.  Sites in the Ibadan area (after Bagodo, 2012, Fig. 15).
Figure 176.  Bodija Railway Cutting, 13 December 1979.
Figure 177.  Bodija Formation type section in the Bodija Railway Cutting, Ibadan (after Burke and Durotoye, 1971, Fig. 6).
Table 15. Bodija Formation.  Stratigraphic column (after Durotoye, 1976, Table 1).
Figure 178.  Bodija Railway Cutting, particle size distribution for Orita and Agodi members and weathered in situ gneiss (after Durotoye 1972, and Kiladejo, 1980, Fig. 11).
Figure 179.  Sites in the vicinity of Ajibode (after Momin, 1995, Fig. 1, and Bagodo, 2012, Fig. 13).
Table 16. Ajibode UMF site.  Stratigraphy of Trench D.
Table 17. Ajibode UMF site.  Dimensions of flakes, cores, points, and picks.
Figure 180.  Olude-Araromi, general view, sections left of the road, 13 December 1979.
Table 18. Olude-Araromi.Stratigraphy with major units identified.
Figure 181.  Bodija Formation sections at Olude-Araromi (after Kiladejo, 1980, Fig. 8).
Figure 182.  Palaeolithic sites in Northern Cameroun (modified after Marliac 2006, Carte 9 bis).
Figure 183.  Northern Cameroun. Traverse number 4 (after Marliac 2006, Figure 2).
Figure 184.  Mindif 80.  1, 2-platform flake/blade core.  2 and 4, Levallois points.  3, Levallois point core.  5, flake.  6 and 7, Levallois blades.  [PAJ 1986 Fig. 9.6: 4-7].
Figure 185.  Mindif 80.  1, Levallois flake.  2, Levallois blade.  3, flake from disc core.  4, core edge removal flake.  5, flake.  6, flake from disc core.  7, convex sidescraper on Levallois point.  8, chopper.  [PAJ 1986 Fig. 9.6: 1-3].
Figure 186.  Dent de Mindif, 9 February 1980.
Figure 187.  Dent de Mindif, 9 February 1980.
Figure 188.  Dent de Mindif, ferruginous nodule horizon.
Figure 189.  Dent de Mindif, ferruginous nodule horizon and artefacts.
Figure 190.  Katchel, 9 February 1980.
Figure 191.  Katchel, 9 February 1980.
Figure 192.  Northern Cameroun. Traverse number 1 (after Marliac 2006, Figure 3).
Figure 193.  Stratigraphy of Mayo Louti site (after Digara 1988: 80).
Figure 194.  Mayo Louti, general view, 11 February 1980.
Table 19. Mayo Louti and Nassarao. Artefact inventory.
Figure 195.  Mayo Louti, ‘basse terrasse’, 11 February 1980.
Figure 196.  Mayo Louti, ‘moyennes terrasses’, 11 February 1980.
Figure 197.  Mayo Louti, Douroumian ‘glacis’, 11 February 1980.
Figure 198.  Mayo Louti.  Levallois flake/blade, pseudo-levallois point, disc cores.
Figure 199.  Mayo Louti.  1, initial core.  2 and 4, 1-platform flake/blade cores.  3, 1-platform core/chopper.
Figure 200.  Mayo Louti.  1, 1-platform flake/blade core.  2, Levallois flake core.  3, Levallois point core.  4, disc core.  5, Levallois blade.
Figure 201.  Mayo Louti.  1, Levallois blade core.  2, Levallois blade.  3, Levallois point.  4, Levallois flake/point.  5 and 6, Levallois point cores.  7, Levallois flake/point.
Figure 202.  Mayo Louti.  1, Levallois flake/point core.  2, Levallois blade.  3, Levallois flake core.  4, Levallois blade.  5 and 6, Levallois flake/points.
Figure 203.  Mayo Louti.  1, flake.  2, concave sidescraper on Levallois flake.  3, straight sidescraper.  4, pseudo-levallois point.  5, convex sidescraper.
Figure 204.  Mayo Louti.  1 and 6, concave sidescrapers.  2, concave-convex sidescraper.  3 and 4, pseudo-levallois points.  5, convex sidescraper.  7, endscraper.
Figure 205.  Mayo Louti.  1, retouched Levallois point/Mousterian point.  3, convex sidescraper.  Douroum.  2, flake.  4, Levallois blade.  5, Levallois flake.
Figure 206.  Stratigraphy of Nassarao site (after Digara 1988: 186).
Figure 207.  Douroum, 8 February 1980.
Figure 208.  Douroum, 8 February 1980.
Figure 209.  Douroum.  1 and 3, disc cores.  Sanguéré.  2, straight sidescraper.
Figure 210.  Kossi, 6 February 1980.
Figure 211.  Kossi, 6 February 1980.
Figure 212.  Kossi, above the Mayo Kébi, 6 February 1980.
Figure 213.  Tongo.  1, 1-platform flake core.  2, Levallois flake/point core.  Kossi.  3, flake.  4, convex sidescraper.  5, concave sidescraper.
Figure 214.  Sanguéré, 5 February 1980.
Figure 215.  Sanguéré, 5 February 1980.
Figure 216.  Sanguéré. 1, 2-platform Levallois blade core.  2, disc/Levallois core.
Figure 217.  Sanguéré.  1, Levallois flake core.  2, disc core.
Figure 218.  Sanguéré.  1, Levallois flake core.  2, Levallois blade.  3, Levallois blade core.
Figure 219.  Sanguéré.  1, Levallois point core.  2, flake.  3, concave sidescraper.
Figure 220.  Tongo.  1, disc core.  2, Levallois point.  3, flake.  Sanguéré.  4, transverse convex sidescraper.  5, Levallois flake.  6, Levallois blade.
Figure 221.  Sanguéré, disc and Levallois cores.
Figure 222.  Sanguéré, Levallois cores.
Figure 223.  Tongo, 5 February 1980.
Figure 224.  Tongo, 5 February 1980.
Figure 225.  Southern Cameroun.  1, Geological section at Locality 156.  2, Generalized geological section at Locality 114.  3, Locality 156, unifacial pick.  (after Omi 1977, Figs. 24, 25.2, and 32).
Figure 226.  Southern Cameroun.  Locality 114, pick.(after Omi 1977, Fig. 38).
Figure 227.  Southern Cameroun.  Locality 114. 1 and 2, picks. 3, unifacial scraper.  (after Omi 1977, Fig. 39).
Figure 228.  Adrar Bous stratigraphic sections (after Clark et al., 2008, Fig. 4.1).
Figure 229.  Bilma stratigraphic section (after Maley et al., 1971, Fig. 5).  3, Holocene layers.  2, Calcareous diatomites.  3, Silémi terrace, including the following sequence from the top:  (e) sand with calcareous nodules (d) lacustrine limestone with
Table 20. Seggédim. Artefact inventory.
Figure 230.  Map of Ghana, with principal sites indicated.
Figure 231.  Asokrochona railway cutting, 28 December 1980.
Figure 232.  Asokrochona railway cutting (after Davies 1967, Fig.1).
Figure 233.  Asokrochona generalised section (after Nygaard and Talbot 1976, Fig.2).
Figure 234.  Ghana Nautical College, 28 December 1980.
Table 21. Asokrochona artefact totals
Table 22. Asokrochona tool classes
Figure 235.  Asokrochona [Oliver Davies].  1, 2 and 4, disc cores.  3, Levallois flake/blade.
Figure 236.  Asokrochona [Oliver Davies].  1, core-axe.  2, blade.  3, convex sidescraper.  [QCG Fig. 67.18, 21, 3].
Figure 237.  Asokrochona [Oliver Davies].  1, handaxe.  [CQG Fig. 66.1].  2, Levallois flake/point.
Figure 238.  Asokrochona.  1, initial core.  2, disc core.  3, 2-platform flake/blade core.  4, 1-platform flake/blade core.  [1, test pits I-IV, 2-4 Area II].
Figure 239.  Asokrochona.  1, 3, 5 and 6, disc cores.  2, notch.  4, sidescraper on Levallois flake.  [1 and 3-6, Area II, 4 Area I].
Figure 240.  Asokrochona.  1 and 5, bifaces in course of manufacture.  2, point/convergent sidescraper.  3, disc core.  4, convex sidescraper.  6, convergent sidescraper.  7, awl.  [Area II].
Figure 241.  Asokrochona.  1, convergent sidescraper. 2, denticulate.  3 and 5, chopping tools.  4, chopper.  [Area II].
Figure 242.  Asokrochona.  1, pick.  2, transverse convex sidescraper.  [Area II].
Figure 243.  Asokrochona.  1, handaxe.  2, point.  [Area II].
Figure 244.  Asokrochona.  1, point.  2, concave sidescraper/notch.  3, awl.  [Area II].  Tema [Oliver Davies].  4, Levallois flake.  5, blade.  6, disc core.  [QCG Fig. 57.7, 56.9, 56.7].  7, disc/bipolar core [Tema West I 1976 Nygaard].
Figure 245.  Tema [Oliver Davies].  1, handaxe/pick.  2, Levallois flake.  5, pseudo-levallois point.  [QCG Fig. 56.16 and 17].  3, convex sidescraper.  4, chopper.  6, chopping tool.  [Tema West II 1976 Nygaard].
Figure 246.  Asokrochona quartz bifaces.
Figure 247.  Hohoe handaxe/pick.
Figure 248.  Chawenu [Oliver Davies].  1, Levallois flake/blade core.  2, Levallois flake.  3, biface in course of manufacture.  4, pseudo-levallois point.  5, endscraper.  6, chopping tool.
Figure 249.  Chawenu [Oliver Davies].  1 and 2, disc cores.  Hohoe [Oliver Davies].  3, handaxe/pick.
Figure 250.  Ghana Nautical College.  1, disc core.  2, double sidescraper.  [Nygaard 1976].  Narago [Oliver Davies].  3, pseudo-levallois point.  4, retouched Levallois point.  5, Levallois flake.  6, retouched Levallois flake. [QCG Fig. 62.6, 62.8].
Figure 251.  Birimi location and topographic map (after Quickert et al. 2003, Fig. 1).
Figure 252.  Birimi MSA profile east wall of main gully (after Quickert et al. 2003, Fig. 2).
Figure 253.  Abidjan area, with Attinguié and Anyama.
Figure 254.  South-west Ivory Coast, with Gouabuo and Sablière.
Figure 255.  Plan of Anyama (after Guédé and Tastet, 1986, Fig. 1c).
Figure 256.  Anyama, view to quarry looking west from roadside, 7 November 1983.
Figure 257.  Anyama, west face of quarry with excavated area at top, 7 November 1983.
Figure 258.  Anyama, excavated area surface view to north, 7 November 1983.
Figure 259.  Stratigraphy of Anyama (after Liubin and Guédé, 2000, Fig. 6.I).
Table 23. Anyama I-IV layer D and Gouabuo I and II
Table 24. Anyama I-III layer C and Sablière
Figure 260.  Sierra Leone map.
Figure 261.  Yengema mining area.
Figure 262.  Yengema NDMC golf course, 16 October 1986.
Figure 263.  Yengema rest house and cave, 17 October 1986.
Figure 264.  Cross section of a typical valley (after H.J.E. Haggard).
Figure 265.  Gbogbora river east of Fotingaya, 17 October 1986.
Figure 266.  Gbogbora river ‘cooperative mining site’, 17 October 1986.
Table 25. Yengema. Dimensions (means + SDs) of bifacial artefacts.
Figure 267.  Yengema broken bifaces.
Figure 268.  Yengema broken bifaces.
Figure 269.  Yengema complete bifaces.
Figure 270.  Ground stone axe found by Mr A. Nabby in Yengema area.
Figure 271.  Quartz handaxe found by Mr H.H. Jackson in Koidu area.
Figure 272.  Map of Mali with Dogon plateau and sites.
Figure 273.  Ounjougou location and geomorphology (after Soriano et al. 2010a, Fig. 1).
Figure 274.  Yamé confluence of four rivers, 12 February 2001.
Figure 275.  Yamé view upstream.
Figure 276.  Oumounaama 4.
Figure 277.  Oumounaama 5.
Figure 278.  Kokolo 3.
Figure 279.  Kokolo 3.
Figure 280.  Kokolo 2.
Figure 281.  Yamé campement, 14 February 2001.
Figure 282.  Ounjougou archaeological levels (after Chevrier et al. 2018, Fig. 10).
Figure 283.  Bandiagara escarpment and Songona (after Rasse et al. 2012, Photo 1).
Figure 284.  Map of Senegal, showing position of more detailed charts of Senegal and Falémé river valleys and Cape Verde.
Figure 285.  Cape Verde peninsula.
Figure 286.  Falémé river valley, recently excavated sites (after Lebrun et al. 2017, Fig. 1).
Figure 287.  Senegal river valley, recently excavated sites (after Scerri et al. 2015, Fig. 5).
Table 26. Four artefact inventories from Senegal
Figure 288.  Tiémassas excavation section (after Descamps 1979, Fig. 29).
Figure 289.  Tiémassas ravine first stop, 20 October 1988.
Figure 290.  Tiémassas ravine first stop.
Figure 291.  Tiémassas marigot, 20 October 1988
Figure 292.  Tiémassas marigot.
Figure 293.  Tiémassas bridge section, sables/gravillons.
Figure 294.  Tiémassas bridge section, detail.
Figure 295.  Tiémassas disc cores found at site.
Figure 296.  Sébikotane ravine entrance, 15 October 1988.
Figure 297.  Sébikotane ravine entrance.
Figure 298.  Sébikotane ravine east side.
Figure 299.  Sébikotane biface on eastern slope.
Figure 300.  Sébikotane ravine west side and Wm Ponty school.
Figure 301.  Fann biface findspots (after Descamps 1979, Fig. 29).
Figure 302.  Biface Faculté de Droit 1959 (after Descamps 1979, Fig. 8).
Figure 303.  Bafoulabé.  1 and 4, disc/Levallois cores.  2, pseudo-levallois point.  3, disc core.  5, Levallois point.  6 and 7, Levallois flake/points.
Figure 304.  Bafoulabé.  1, canted sidescraper.  2 - 4, Levallois points.  5, Levallois flake/point.  6, Levallois flake/blade.  8, flake/blade.  Sébikotane.  7, 2-platform core.
Figure 305.  Bafoulabé.  1 and 2, flake/blades.  3 and 4, flakes.  Sébikotane.  5 and 6, 2-platform cores.  7 and 8, Levallois points.  9, transverse convex sidescraper.
Figure 306.  Sébikotane.  1, double sidescraper.  2, convex sidescraper.  3, bifacial point.  4, canted sidescraper.  5, 8 and 9, convergent sidescrapers.  6, tanged point base.  7, bifacial foliate point.  10, transverse convex sidescraper.  11, notch.
Figure 307.  Sébikotane.  1, chopper/axe.  2, endscraper.  3, retouched Levallois point.
Figure 308.  Previously known sites along Senegal and Falémé river valleys (after Camara and Duboscq 1987, Fig. 1).
Figure 309.  Diagrammatic section through Falémé river deposits (after Camara and Duboscq 1984, Fig. 4).
Figure 310.  Takoutala.  1, Levallois core.  2, straight/concave sidescraper.  3, Levallois flake.  4, Levallois flake/blade.  5 and 6, disc cores.
Figure 311.  Takoutala.  1, convergent sidescraper.  2, canted sidescraper.  3, Levallois point.  Badoye.  4, convex sidescraper.
Figure 312.  Map of Guinea.
Table 27. Fouta Djalon 14 sites summary statistics.
Figure 313.  Fouta Djalon.  Plan and section of site A1.(after Boriskovsky and Soloviev 1978, Fig. 10).
Figure 314.  Fouta Djalon.  Artefacts from sites A1 and A7.  (after Boriskovsky and Soloviev 1978, Fig. 9).
Figure 315.  African evolutionary and paleoclimatic changes (after de Menocal, 2011).
Figure 316.  The roots of modern human behaviour (after Gibbons, 2018).
Figure 317.  Middle Palaeolithic-Middle Stone Age regional variants in Africa (after Clark, 1992, Fig. 1).
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