The Mechatronics Handbook

Section I: Overview of Mechatronics......Page 1
1.1 Basic Definitions......Page 2
1.3 Historical Perspective......Page 3
1.4 The Development of the Automobile as a Mechatronic System......Page 7
References......Page 10
2.1 Historical Development and Definition of Mechatronic Systems......Page 12
Division of Functions between Mechanics and Electronics......Page 14
Addition of New Functions......Page 15
Integration of Information Processing (Software)......Page 16
Multilevel Control Architecture......Page 17
Model-based and Adaptive Control Systems......Page 18
Intelligent Systems (Basic Tasks)......Page 19
Required CAD/CAE Tools......Page 20
Modeling Procedure......Page 21
Real-Time Simulation......Page 23
Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation......Page 24
Control Prototyping......Page 25
References......Page 26
3.1 Introduction......Page 28
A Home/Office Example......Page 29
Transducer/Sensor Input......Page 30
Digital-to-Analog Converters......Page 32
Sampling Rate......Page 33
Data Acquisition Boards......Page 34
Fixed-Point Mathematics......Page 35
Polling and Interrupts......Page 36
Microcontroller Network Systems......Page 37
Software Engineering......Page 38
Verification and Validation......Page 39
3.10 Summary......Page 40
4.1 Introduction to Microelectronics......Page 41
4.3 Overview of Control Computers......Page 42
4.4 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers......Page 44
4.5 Programmable Logic Controllers......Page 45
4.6 Digital Communications......Page 46
The Physics of Scaling......Page 48
Sensor and Actuator Transduction Characteristics......Page 49
Electrostatic Actuation......Page 50
Electromagnetic Actuation......Page 52
5.3 Microsensors......Page 53
Pressure......Page 54
Angular Rate Sensing (Gyroscopes)......Page 55
5.4 Nanomachines......Page 56
References......Page 58
6.1 Introduction......Page 61
6.2 Nano-, Micro-, and Mini-Scale Electromechanical Systems and Mechatronic Curriculum......Page 63
6.3 Mechatronics and Modern Engineering......Page 64
6.4 Design of Mechatronic Systems......Page 65
6.5 Mechatronic System Components......Page 66
6.7 Mechatronic Curriculum......Page 67
6.8 Introductory Mechatronic Course......Page 68
6.9 Books in Mechatronics......Page 69
6.11 Conclusions: Mechatronics Perspectives......Page 71
References......Page 72
Section II: Physical System Modeling......Page 74
7.1 Introduction......Page 76
Constraints and Generalized Coordinates......Page 77
Newton–Euler Equation......Page 79
Compound Pendulum......Page 81
Gyroscopic Motions......Page 82
7.6 Elastic System Modeling......Page 83
Piezoelastic Beam......Page 84
7.7 Electromagnetic Forces......Page 85
Example 1. Charge–Charge Forces......Page 87
Example 2. Magnetic Force on an Electromagnet......Page 88
7.8 Dynamic Principles for Electric and Magnetic Circuits......Page 89
Lagrange’s Equations of Motion for Electromechanical Systems......Page 90
Example: Electric Force on a Comb-Drive MEMS Actuator......Page 91
7.9 Earnshaw’s Theorem and Electromechanical Stability......Page 93
References......Page 94
Statics and Dynamics of Mechatronic Systems......Page 95
Equations of Motion of Deformable Bodies......Page 96
Electric Phenomena......Page 99
Beams......Page 100
Thin Plates......Page 101
8.3 Vibration and Modal Analysis......Page 103
8.4 Buckling Analysis......Page 104
Electrostatic Transducers......Page 105
Electromagnetic Transducers......Page 106
Electroactive Polymer Actuators......Page 107
References......Page 110
9.1 Introduction......Page 112
9.2 Mechanical System Modeling in Mechatronic Systems......Page 113
Power and Energy Basis......Page 114
Power and Signal Flow......Page 115
Need for Motional Basis......Page 116
Interconnection of Components......Page 117
Causality......Page 118
Defining Mechanical Input and Output Model Elements......Page 119
Dissipative Effects in Mechanical Systems......Page 120
Potential Energy Storage Elements......Page 123
Kinetic Energy Storage......Page 125
Coupling Mechanisms......Page 126
Impedance Relationships......Page 128
Kinematic and Dynamic Laws......Page 130
Identifying and Representing Motion in a Bond Graph......Page 131
Assigning and Using Causality......Page 132
Mass-Spring-Damper: Classical Approach......Page 134
Mass-Spring-Damper: Bond Graph Approach......Page 135
Quarter-car Active Suspension: Bond Graph Approach......Page 137
Note on Some Difficulties in Deriving Equations......Page 138
Restrictions on Constitutive Relations......Page 139
Deriving Constitutive Relations......Page 140
Checking the Constitutive Relations......Page 141
Relating Vector Time Derivatives in Coordinate Systems......Page 142
Translating Coordinate Axes......Page 143
Translating and Rotating Coordinate Axes......Page 144
Angle Representations of Rotation......Page 145
Euler Parameters and Quaternions......Page 148
Inertia Properties......Page 150
Angular Momentum......Page 152
Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body......Page 153
Basic Equations of Motion......Page 154
Rigid Body Bond Graph Formulation......Page 156
Example: Torquewhirl Dynamics......Page 157
Classical Approach......Page 159
Extensions for Nonholonomic Systems......Page 160
Mechanical Subsystem Models Using Lagrange Methods......Page 161
Methodology for Building Subsystem Model......Page 162
References......Page 164
Fluid Power Systems......Page 166
Viscosity......Page 167
Principle of Valve Control......Page 168
Hydraulic Control Valves......Page 169
Principles of Pump Operation......Page 170
Pump Controls and Systems......Page 171
Cylinder Parameters......Page 172
System Steady-State Characteristics......Page 173
System Dynamic Characteristics......Page 174
E/H System Feedforward-Plus-PID Control......Page 175
E/H System Generic Fuzzy Control......Page 176
10.7 Programmable Electrohydraulic Valves......Page 177
References......Page 179
11.2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits......Page 180
Electric Power and Sign Convention......Page 183
Resistance and Ohm’s Law......Page 184
Open and Short Circuits......Page 187
Definition......Page 189
Definition......Page 190
Practical Voltage and Current Sources......Page 191
The Voltmeter......Page 193
The Node Voltage Method......Page 194
The Mesh Current Method......Page 195
Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits......Page 196
Determination of Norton or Thévenin Equivalent Resistance......Page 197
Experimental Determination of Thévenin and Norton Equivalents......Page 198
Description of Nonlinear Elements......Page 199
The Ideal Capacitor......Page 200
Example 11.3 Capacitive Displacement Transducer and Microphone......Page 203
The Ideal Inductor......Page 204
Time-Dependent Signal Sources......Page 207
Average and RMS Values......Page 208
Solution of Circuits Containing Dynamic Elements......Page 209
Impedance......Page 211
Example 11.4 Capacitive Displacement Transducer......Page 213
References......Page 215
System......Page 216
Temperature......Page 217
Irreversibilities......Page 218
Mass Balance......Page 219
Entropy Balance......Page 220
Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 221
Defining Exergy......Page 224
Exergy Transfer and Exergy Destruction......Page 225
Guidelines for Improving Thermodynamic Effectiveness......Page 226
P-v-T Surface......Page 227
Thermodynamic Data Retrieval......Page 229
Analytical Equations of State......Page 230
Ideal Gas Model......Page 231
Work and Heat Transfer in Internally Reversible Processes......Page 237
Polytropic Processes......Page 239
Rankine and Brayton Cycles......Page 240
Otto, Diesel, and Dual Cycles......Page 243
References......Page 246
13.1 Introduction......Page 248
13.2 The Digital Circuit Development Process: Modeling and Simulating Systems with Micro- (or Nan.........Page 249
13.3 Analog and Mixed-Signal Circuit Development: Modeling and Simulating Systems with Micro- (or.........Page 254
Basic Modeling and Simulation Techniques......Page 255
A Catalog of Resources for MEMS Modeling and Simulation......Page 257
C. Tools Developed Specifically for MEMS......Page 259
13.5 Modeling and Simulating MEMS, i.e., Systems with Micro- (or Nano-) Scale Feature Sizes, Mixe.........Page 260
13.6 A “Recipe” for Successful MEMS Simulation......Page 262
References......Page 263
14: Rotational and Translational Microelectromechanical Systems: MEMS Synthesis, Microfabrication, Analysis, and Opti......Page 266
14.1 Introduction......Page 267
14.2 MEMS Motion Microdevice Classifier and Structural Synthesis......Page 268
Surface Micromachining......Page 271
LIGA and LIGA-Like Technologies......Page 272
14.4 MEMS Electromagnetic Fundamentals and Modeling......Page 273
14.5 MEMS Mathematical Models......Page 276
Example 14.5.1: Mathematical Model of the Translational Microtransducer......Page 279
Example 14.5.2: Mathematical Model of an Elementary Synchronous Reluctance Micromotor......Page 281
Example 14.5.3: Mathematical Model of Two-Phase Permanent-Magnet Stepper Micromotors......Page 283
Example 14.5.4: Mathematical Model of Two-Phase Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Micromotors......Page 285
14.6 Control of MEMS......Page 287
Tracking Control......Page 288
Sliding Mode Control......Page 290
Constrained Control of Nonlinear MEMS: Hamilton–Jacobi Method......Page 291
Example......Page 292
Constrained Control of Nonlinear Uncertain MEMS: Lyapunov Method......Page 294
Example 14.6.1: Control of Two-Phase Permanent-Magnet Stepper Micromotors......Page 296
14.7 Conclusions......Page 299
References......Page 300
15.1 Introduction......Page 301
Drawbacks of the Across-Through Classification......Page 302
Physical Intuition......Page 303
Physical Intuition......Page 304
15.5 A Thermodynamic Basis for Analogies......Page 305
Equilibrium and Steady State......Page 306
Analogies, Not Identities......Page 307
15.6 Graphical Representations......Page 308
15.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 309
References......Page 310
Section III: Sensors and Actuators......Page 311
Classification......Page 312
Acceleration Sensors......Page 315
Temperature Sensors......Page 316
Smart Material Sensors......Page 317
Calibration......Page 318
Electromechanical Actuators......Page 319
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators......Page 322
Smart Material Actuators......Page 323
Micro- and Nanoactuators......Page 324
Selection Criteria......Page 325
17.1 Introduction......Page 326
17.2 Time and Frequency Measurement......Page 327
Accuracy......Page 328
Stability......Page 331
17.3 Time and Frequency Standards......Page 334
Quartz Oscillators......Page 335
Cesium Oscillators......Page 337
Fundamentals of Time and Frequency Transfer......Page 338
Radio Time and Frequency Transfer Signals......Page 339
LF Radio Signals (Including WWVB)......Page 340
Global Positioning System (GPS)......Page 341
References......Page 342
18.1 Range......Page 344
18.4 Error......Page 345
18.6 Linearity and Accuracy......Page 346
18.7 Impedance......Page 347
18.9 Static and Coulomb Friction......Page 348
18.11 Backlash......Page 349
18.13 Deadband......Page 350
18.15 First-Order System Response......Page 351
18.16 Underdamped Second-Order System Response......Page 352
18.17 Frequency Response......Page 355
Reference......Page 357
19: Sensors......Page 358
Contact......Page 359
Infrared......Page 360
Optical Encoders......Page 362
Resistive......Page 364
Capacitive......Page 365
Hall Effect Switches......Page 366
Analog Hall Sensors......Page 367
Magnetostrictive Time-of-Flight......Page 368
19.2 Acceleration Sensors......Page 369
Dynamics and Characteristics of Accelerometers......Page 370
Periodic Vibrations......Page 372
Sensitivity of Accelerometers......Page 374
The Mass of Accelerometer and Dynamic Range......Page 375
Inertial Accelerometers......Page 376
Suspended-Mass, Cantilever, and Pendulum-Type Inertial Accelerometers......Page 378
Induction Accelerometers......Page 380
Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 381
Piezoresistive Accelerometers......Page 382
Strain-Gauge Accelerometers......Page 383
Electrostatic-Force-Feedback Accelerometers......Page 384
Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers......Page 385
Micro- and Nanoaccelerometers......Page 387
Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 388
References......Page 390
Hooke’s Law......Page 391
Force Sensors......Page 393
Strain Gages......Page 394
Beam-Type Load Cell......Page 395
Ring-Type Load Cell......Page 396
Piezoelectric Methods......Page 397
Inductive Method......Page 398
Multicomponent Dynamometers Using Quartz Crystals as Sensing Elements......Page 399
Capacitive Force Transducer......Page 400
Magnetoresistive Force Sensors......Page 401
Tactile Sensors......Page 402
19.4 Torque and Power Measurement......Page 405
Force, Torque, and Equilibrium......Page 406
Work, Energy, and Power......Page 407
Arrangements of Apparatus for Torque and Power Measurement......Page 408
Twist Angle......Page 409
Stress......Page 410
Mechanical Considerations......Page 411
Costs and Options......Page 412
Apparatus for Power Measurement......Page 413
Absorption Dynamometers......Page 414
Driving and Universal Dynamometers......Page 416
References......Page 417
Flow Characteristics......Page 419
Flowmeter Classification......Page 420
Differential Pressure Flowmeter......Page 421
The Positive Displacement Flowmeter......Page 423
The Turbine Flowmeter......Page 424
The Vortex Shedding Flowmeter......Page 425
The Ultrasonic Flowmeter......Page 426
Two-Phase Flow......Page 428
Flowmeter Selection......Page 429
Introduction......Page 430
Liquid vs. Solid......Page 432
Solid vs. Solid......Page 433
Fixed Temperature Indicators......Page 434
Thermocouples......Page 435
Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs)......Page 437
Direct Voltage vs. Current Measurements......Page 439
Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensors......Page 440
IR Emission Thermometers......Page 441
Microscale Temperature Measurements......Page 442
Transient Thermoreflectance (TTR) Technique......Page 443
Closing Comments......Page 444
Introduction......Page 445
Ranging by Time-of-Flight (TOF)......Page 446
Phase Measurement......Page 451
Frequency Modulation......Page 454
Triangulation Ranging......Page 456
Structured Light......Page 462
Magnetic Position Measurement Systems......Page 463
Odometry......Page 464
Angular Optical Encoders......Page 465
Linear Variable Differential Transformers......Page 466
Magnetic Proximity Sensors......Page 467
Inductive Proximity Sensors......Page 469
Microwave Proximity Sensors......Page 471
Retroreflective Mode......Page 472
References......Page 473
Basic Radiometry......Page 476
Light Sources......Page 478
Light Detectors......Page 479
Photon Detectors......Page 480
Junction Detectors......Page 481
Image Formation......Page 484
Charge-Coupled Devices......Page 486
Linear Charge-Coupled Devices......Page 488
Area Charge-Coupled Devices......Page 489
CMOS Sensors......Page 490
Vision Systems......Page 491
References......Page 492
Definition of Integrated Microsensors......Page 493
Fabrication Process of Integrated Microsensors......Page 494
Electrostatic Sensing......Page 495
Piezoelectric Sensing......Page 496
Bulk Micromachined Pressure Sensors......Page 497
Surface Micromachined Pressure Sensors......Page 500
Bulk Micromachined Accelerometers......Page 502
Surface Micromachined Accelerometers......Page 503
Tactile Sensors......Page 504
Flow Sensors......Page 505
Flow Sensors Based on Heat Transfer Principles......Page 506
Flow Sensors Based on Momentum Transfer Principles......Page 507
Future Development Trends......Page 508
References......Page 509
Introduction......Page 510
Lorentz’s Law of Electromagnetic Force......Page 512
Boit–Savart Law......Page 513
Solenoid Type Devices......Page 515
Voice-Coil Motors (VCMs)......Page 517
Electric Motors......Page 518
Piezoelectric......Page 520
Power Amplification and Modulation—Switching Power Electronics......Page 522
Diodes......Page 523
Thyristors......Page 526
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)......Page 529
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)......Page 532
Linear Amplifiers......Page 535
Switching Amplifiers......Page 538
Driving Inductive Load......Page 540
Isolation......Page 541
The dc Motor......Page 542
Armature Electromotive Force (emf)......Page 543
Terminal Voltage......Page 544
The Series-Wound Motor......Page 545
Starting dc Motors......Page 547
Variable Armature Voltage......Page 548
Chopper Control......Page 549
Synchronous Motors......Page 550
Induction Motors......Page 552
Speed Control of Induction Motors......Page 553
Reduced Stator Voltage......Page 554
The Capacitor Motor......Page 555
The Stepper Motor......Page 556
Stepper Motor Terminology......Page 557
Brushless dc Motors......Page 558
Motor Selection......Page 559
Constitutive Equations......Page 560
Piezoactuating Elements......Page 562
Application Areas......Page 565
Main Types of Piezomotors......Page 566
Piezoactuators with Several Degrees of Freedom......Page 569
Introduction......Page 571
Fluid Actuation Systems......Page 572
Fluid Servosystems......Page 573
Hydraulic Actuation Systems......Page 574
Rotary Vane Pumps......Page 575
Rotary and Semi-rotary Motors......Page 577
Linear Actuators......Page 578
Directional Valves......Page 579
Pressure Regulator Valves......Page 580
Flow-rate Regulator Valves......Page 581
Proportional Valves and Servovalves......Page 582
Modeling of a Hydraulic Servosystem for Position Control......Page 587
Pneumatic Actuation Systems......Page 592
Compressors......Page 593
Compressed Air Treatment Units......Page 594
Pneumatic Valves......Page 595
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Valves......Page 596
Proportional Pressure Regulator Valves......Page 597
Modeling a Pneumatic Servosystem......Page 599
References......Page 604
Introduction......Page 605
Design and Fabrication......Page 606
Analysis of Translational Microtransducers......Page 610
Single-Phase Reluctance Micromotors: Microfabrication, Modeling, and Analysis......Page 612
Three-Phase Synchronous Reluctance Micromotors: Modeling and Analysis......Page 614
Microfabrication Aspects......Page 617
Conductor Thin Films Electrodeposition......Page 618
NiFe Thin Films Electrodeposition......Page 619
NiFeMo and NiCo Thin Films Electrodeposition......Page 622
Micromachined Polymer Permanent Magnets......Page 623
Microstructures and Microtransducers with Permanent Magnets: Micromirror Actuator......Page 624
Electromagnetic Torques and Forces: Preliminaries......Page 630
Coordinate Systems and Electromagnetic Field......Page 631
Case 1: Magnetization Along the Axis of Symmetry......Page 633
Case 2: Magnetization Perpendicular to the Axis of Symmetry......Page 636
Some Other Aspects of Microactuator Design and Optimization......Page 637
Micromachined Polycrystalline Silicon Carbide Micromotors......Page 638
Axial Electromagnetic Micromotors......Page 639
References......Page 640
Section IV: Systems and Controls......Page 642
21.1 Introduction......Page 644
Modeling......Page 646
Control System Design Methodologies......Page 649
Servo System Design......Page 650
Design of a Mobile Robot......Page 653
Rudder Roll Stabilization of Ships......Page 655
Compensation of Nonlinear Effects in a Linear Motor......Page 656
21.5 Special Requirements of Mechatronics that Differentiate from “Classic” Systems and Control D.........Page 658
References......Page 659
22.1 Modeling as Part of the Design Process......Page 661
Phase 1......Page 662
Phase 2......Page 665
22.2 The Goals of Modeling......Page 666
Hierarchical Framework......Page 667
Analogies......Page 668
Partial vs. Ordinary Differential Equations......Page 669
Linear vs. Nonlinear......Page 670
References......Page 671
Signal Classification1–4......Page 672
The Unit Step Function......Page 674
Basic Continuous-Time Signals......Page 675
Basic Discrete-Time Signals......Page 676
Basic Operations on Signals......Page 677
The Convolution and Correlation Integrals2......Page 678
Orthogonal Basis Functions2,3......Page 679
The Complex Exponential Fourier Series......Page 680
Fourier Series for Real Signals3......Page 683
Properties of the Fourier Series1,4......Page 684
Properties of the Fourier Transform5,6......Page 685
Energy and Power Spectral Density6......Page 686
Sampled Continuous-Time Signals......Page 687
Impulse Sampling6–9......Page 688
Practical Sampling8–10......Page 689
Digital-to-Analog Conversion8–12......Page 692
Discrete-Time Fourier Transform6–8......Page 693
Discrete Fourier Series6–8......Page 696
The Discrete Fourier Transform6,8,13......Page 697
DFT Parameter Selection6......Page 699
23.2 z Transform and Digital Systems......Page 700
Digital Systems and Discretized Data......Page 701
The Transfer Function......Page 704
Digital Systems Described by Difference Equations (ARMAX Models)......Page 705
Prediction and Reconstruction......Page 706
Example 23.1—An Optimal Predictor for a First-Order Model......Page 707
The Kalman Filter......Page 708
Defining Terms......Page 709
References......Page 710
Introduction......Page 711
An Example Piezoceramic Actuator......Page 712
Simple Model of a Piezo-Tube Actuator......Page 713
Example......Page 714
The Linear State-Space Equation and Its Solution......Page 715
Example......Page 716
Linearization of Nonlinear Systems......Page 717
Frequency-Response Using Transfer-Functions......Page 718
Transfer-Function to State-Space......Page 719
Experimental Modeling Using Frequency-Response......Page 720
Time Scaling of a Transfer-Function Model......Page 721
Introduction......Page 722
The z-Transform and Relationship with the State-Space......Page 723
Summary......Page 724
23.4 Transfer Functions and Laplace Transforms......Page 725
Transfer Functions......Page 726
The Laplace Transformation......Page 727
Transform Properties......Page 728
Transformation and Solution of a System Equation......Page 729
Further Information......Page 731
24.1 Models: Fundamental Concepts......Page 732
Basic State Space Models......Page 733
Example 24.1......Page 734
24.3 State Space Description for Continuous-Time Systems......Page 735
Example 24.2......Page 736
Linear State Space Models......Page 738
System Dynamics......Page 739
Structure of the Forced Response......Page 740
Speed of Response and Resonances......Page 741
Example 24.3......Page 742
Example 24.4......Page 743
24.4 State Space Description for Discrete-Time and Sampled Data Systems......Page 745
Sampled Data Systems......Page 746
Example 24.6......Page 747
System Dynamics......Page 748
Structure of the Unforced Response......Page 749
Example 24.7......Page 750
Effect of Different Sampling Periods......Page 751
Example 24.9......Page 753
State Space and Transfer Functions......Page 754
Series Connection......Page 755
Feedback Connection......Page 756
Reachability......Page 757
Example 24.12......Page 758
Example 24.13......Page 759
Controllability Gramian......Page 760
Example 24.14......Page 761
Canonical Decomposition and Stabilizability......Page 762
Observability, Reconstructibility, and Detectability......Page 763
Observability Test......Page 764
Example 24.18......Page 765
Example 24.19......Page 767
Canonical Decomposition and Detectability......Page 768
Observability Canonical Form......Page 769
Canonical Decomposition......Page 770
Observer Dynamics......Page 771
Example 24.20......Page 772
Example 24.21......Page 773
Example 24.22......Page 775
Basic Concepts......Page 776
Optimal State Feedback. The Optimal Regulator......Page 777
Separation Strategy......Page 778
References......Page 779
Continuous Time Systems......Page 781
Discrete Time Systems......Page 783
Laplace and z-Transform......Page 784
Transfer Function Models......Page 786
Pulse and Step Response......Page 787
Sinusoid and Frequency Response......Page 790
Step Response Parameters......Page 792
Frequency Domain Parameters......Page 793
26.1 Introduction......Page 795
26.2 Desired Pole Locations......Page 798
Root Locus Rules......Page 801
Root Locus Construction......Page 802
Example 1......Page 804
Example 2......Page 805
Example 3......Page 806
Example 4......Page 808
Example 3 (revisited)......Page 810
26.5 Root Locus for Systems with Time Delays......Page 811
Example......Page 812
Algorithm......Page 813
Example......Page 814
Root Locus Using Padé Approximations......Page 815
26.6 Notes and References......Page 817
References......Page 818
27.1 Introduction......Page 819
Example 1......Page 820
27.2 Bode Plots......Page 821
Poles (or Zeros) on the Real Axis (jwt + 1)±1......Page 822
Complex Conjugate Poles (or Zeros) [(jw/wn)2 + 2V(jw/wn) + 1]±1......Page 823
Example 2......Page 824
27.3 Polar Plots......Page 825
27.4 Log-Magnitude Versus Phase Plots......Page 826
27.5 Experimental Determination of Transfer Functions......Page 827
Example 3......Page 831
Example 4......Page 833
27.7 Relative Stability......Page 835
References......Page 839
28.1 The Discrete-Time Linear Kalman Filter......Page 840
Linearization of Dynamic and Measurement System Models......Page 841
Linear Kalman Filter Update......Page 843
The Continuous–Discrete Linear Kalman Filter......Page 845
The Continuous–Discrete Extended Kalman Filter......Page 846
28.3 Formulation Summary and Review......Page 847
28.4 Implementation Considerations......Page 848
References......Page 849
29.2 Signal Processing Fundamentals......Page 850
Discrete-Time Signals......Page 851
Discretization......Page 853
s-Plane to z-Plane Mappings......Page 855
Frequency Domain Mappings......Page 856
29.4 Digital Filter Design......Page 857
IIR Filter Design......Page 858
FIR Filter Design......Page 860
Filtering Examples......Page 862
29.5 Digital Control Design......Page 866
Digital Control Example......Page 867
References......Page 868
30.1 Introduction......Page 869
The Signals......Page 870
Comment 30.3 (Control and Estimation Problems)......Page 871
Comment 30.5 (Computation of 2 Norm in MATLAB)......Page 872
Comment 30.7 (D11 = 0 Necessary, D22 = 0 Not Necessary)......Page 873
Example 30.1 (Weighted 2 Mixed Sensitivity Problem: Design Philosophy)......Page 874
Weighting Functions and Closed Loop Transfer Function Matrix......Page 876
Input–Output Representation for Generalized Plant G......Page 877
State Space Representation for Generalized Plant G......Page 878
Weighted 2 Optimal Mixed Sensitivity Problem......Page 879
Overview of H2 Optimization Problems to Be Considered......Page 880
Assumption 30.1 (2 Output Feedback Problem)......Page 881
Theorem 30.1 (Solution to 2 Output Feedback Problem Subject to Standard Assumptions)......Page 883
Comment 30.12 (Relationship to LQG, Stability Robustness Margins)......Page 884
Example 30.2 (Weighted 2 Mixed Sensitivity Design for Unstable System with Time Delay)......Page 885
Example 30.3 (LQG/LTR Design for First Order Unstable Missile Model)......Page 887
Example 30.4 (MIMO LQG and LQG/LTR Control Design Via 2 Optimization)......Page 892
Example 30.5 (2-LQG/LTR Design for PUMA 560 Robotic Manipulator)......Page 900
Step 1: Augment Plant P with Integrators to Get Design Plant Pd = [A, B, C]......Page 901
Step 2: Design Target Open Loop Transfer Function Matrix Lo = GKF = C(sI - A)-lHf......Page 902
Step 4: Construct Final Controller K......Page 907
Step 5: Design Command Pre-filter W......Page 908
Response to Q1 Step Reference Command......Page 909
Response to Q2 Step Reference Command......Page 910
Assumption 30.2 (2 State Feedback Problem)......Page 912
State Feedback Loop Shaping......Page 913
Assumption 30.3 (2 Output Injection Problem)......Page 914
30.6 Summary......Page 915
References......Page 916
31.1 Introduction......Page 917
31.2 Lyapunov Theory for Time-Invariant Systems......Page 918
31.3 Lyapunov Theory for Time-Varying Systems......Page 919
Certainty Equivalence Principle......Page 920
Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC)......Page 921
31.5 Nonlinear Adaptive Control Systems......Page 922
31.6 Spacecraft Adaptive Attitude Regulation Example......Page 925
31.7 Output Feedback Adaptive Control......Page 926
31.8 Adaptive Observers and Output Feedback Control......Page 927
References......Page 928
32.1 Neural Networks and Fuzzy Systems......Page 930
32.2 Neuron Cell......Page 931
32.3 Feedforward Neural Networks......Page 933
32.4 Learning Algorithms for Neural Networks......Page 934
Winner Takes All (WTA)......Page 935
Linear Regression......Page 936
Delta Learning Rule......Page 937
Error Backpropagation Learning......Page 938
32.5 Special Feedforward Networks......Page 940
Functional Link Network......Page 941
Feedforward Version of the Counterpropagation Network......Page 942
WTA Architecture......Page 943
Cascade Correlation Architecture......Page 944
Radial Basis Function Networks......Page 945
Hopfield Network......Page 946
Autoassociative Memory......Page 947
32.7 Fuzzy Systems......Page 948
Rule Evaluation......Page 949
Defuzzification......Page 950
Design Example......Page 951
Selection and Reproduction......Page 952
Mutation......Page 953
References......Page 954
33.1 Introduction......Page 956
33.2 Generalities Concerning ROBI_3, a Cartesian Robot with Three Electrohydraulic Axes......Page 957
The Extended Mathematical Model......Page 959
Nonlinear Mathematical Model of the Servovalve......Page 960
Nonlinear Mathematical Model of Linear Hydraulic Motor......Page 961
33.4 Conventional Controllers Used to Control the Electrohydraulic Axis......Page 963
Observer......Page 964
The Linear Mathematical Models (LMM)......Page 965
Controller Design......Page 966
Simulation Results of Electrohydraulic Axis with Conventional Controllers......Page 967
33.5 Control of Electrohydraulic Axis with Fuzzy Controllers......Page 968
33.6 Neural Techniques Used to Control the Electrohydraulic Axis......Page 969
Specialized Inverse Learning......Page 970
33.7 Neuro-Fuzzy Techniques Used to Control the Electrohydraulic Axis......Page 971
Control Structure......Page 974
33.8 Software Considerations......Page 978
33.9 Conclusions......Page 980
References......Page 981
Principles of Optimization......Page 984
General Aspects of the Optimization Process......Page 985
Stochastic Methods......Page 986
Tabu Search Algorithm......Page 987
Genetic Algorithm (GA)......Page 988
Classical IM Design Evaluation......Page 989
Objective (Criterion) Function......Page 990
Other Results......Page 991
34.4 The Use of a Neuron Network for the Identification of the Parameters of a Mechanical Dynamic.........Page 992
A Practical Application—Gearbox......Page 993
Task Definition......Page 994
Results......Page 996
References......Page 997