The Mechanics of the Circulation

Cover......Page 1
THE MECHANICS OF THE CIRCULATION......Page 2
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Foreword......Page 14
Preface to the First Edition......Page 18
Acknowledgements......Page 21
Introduction to the Second Edition......Page 22
Part I 
Background mechanics......Page 28
1 
Particles and continuous materials......Page 30
Position......Page 34
Velocity......Page 35
Acceleration......Page 39
Newton’s laws of motion: mass and force......Page 41
Work and energy......Page 47
The difference between units and dimensions......Page 51
Mass, length and time as fundamental units......Page 52
The inconvenience of force as a fundamental unit......Page 53
The use of volume and flow rate in physiology......Page 54
Système International (SI)......Page 55
Stress......Page 58
Hydrostatic pressure......Page 60
Stress in a moving fluid: viscosity......Page 62
The equation of motion of a fluid......Page 65
Convective and local acceleration......Page 67
Conservation of mass......Page 68
Bernoulli’s theorem......Page 69
Poiseuille flow in a tube......Page 72
Flow in the entrance region......Page 77
The idea of the boundary layer......Page 79
Reynolds number......Page 82
Turbulence in pipe flow......Page 83
Unsteady flow in a very long pipe......Page 85
Effects of constrictions on pipe flow characteristics......Page 88
Flow in curved pipes......Page 93
Flow past bodies......Page 96
6 
Dimensional analysis......Page 107
Some examples of scaling in biological systems......Page 108
A method of obtaining homogeneous relationships between variables......Page 109
Definitions of elastic properties......Page 113
The properties of blood vessel walls......Page 118
Statics of an elastic tube......Page 127
Simple harmonic motion......Page 132
Simple waves......Page 139
Damping......Page 143
Wave reflections and resonance......Page 147
Linearity......Page 150
Fourier analysis......Page 153
9
 An introduction to mass transfer......Page 155
Diffusion......Page 156
Mass transfer coefficients......Page 160
Diffusion through pores and membranes......Page 162
Filtration through membranes......Page 165
Osmosis......Page 166
A simple mass transfer model......Page 168
The interaction of bulk flow and diffusion......Page 169
Part II
 Mechanics of the circulation......Page 174
Viscosity of fluids and suspensions......Page 176
Osmotic pressure of plasma......Page 183
The blood cells......Page 184
Blood coagulation......Page 194
Thrombosis......Page 195
Mechanical properties of whole blood......Page 196
Sedimentation of red cells......Page 197
Principles of measurement of blood viscosity......Page 198
Viscous properties of blood......Page 201
11 
The heart......Page 205
Anatomy of the heart......Page 206
Electrical events......Page 210
Mechanical events......Page 211
Structure......Page 213
Static mechanical properties of cardiac muscle......Page 216
Dynamic mechanical properties of cardiac muscle......Page 218
Summary......Page 228
Mechanical behaviour of the intact heart......Page 229
Left ventricular shape and wall stresses......Page 231
Right ventricular shape......Page 236
The mechanics of the entire ventricle......Page 237
Summary......Page 251
Right heart......Page 252
Left heart......Page 254
Sounds......Page 261
Murmurs......Page 263
Further reading......Page 264
12 
The systemic arteries......Page 265
The anatomy of large blood vessels......Page 266
Branching ratios and angles......Page 268
The structure of the arterial wall......Page 271
Arterial wall thickness......Page 277
Changes in the arterial wall with age......Page 278
Blood pressure and flow in systemic arteries......Page 282
Transmural pressures......Page 283
Unsteady pressure in large arteries......Page 286
Flow......Page 289
Terminology......Page 292
Fourier analysis......Page 293
Wave propagation in arteries......Page 296
The Windkessel model......Page 297
The propagation of the pressure wave......Page 298
Determination of the wave speed......Page 299
Comparison of theory with experiment......Page 302
Accuracy of the linearity approximation......Page 303
Further limitations of the simple elastic model......Page 304
Reflection at a single junction......Page 305
The matching of impedances......Page 308
Positive and negative reflection......Page 310
Physiological evidence of wave reflections......Page 312
Multiple reflections......Page 315
Interpretation of observed pressure waveforms in large arteries......Page 318
The effect of taper......Page 321
The influence of nonlinearities......Page 324
Effect of blood viscosity on flow-rate waveform......Page 326
Effect of viscosity on wave propagation......Page 328
Other types of wave......Page 331
Velocity profiles in large arteries......Page 333
Physical mechanisms underlying the velocity profiles......Page 340
Instability and turbulence......Page 348
Mixing in the heart and large blood vessels......Page 355
Mass transport across artery walls......Page 360
Appendix: Impedance......Page 365
Further reading......Page 368
13 
The systemic microcirculation......Page 370
The arteriolar system......Page 371
The capillary system......Page 373
The venular system......Page 376
The structure of the vessels of the microcirculation......Page 377
The arterioles......Page 378
The capillaries......Page 380
The venules......Page 385
The junctions between vascular endothelial cells......Page 387
Static mechanical properties of the microcirculatory vessels......Page 390
Elastic properties of the arterioles......Page 391
Mechanical properties of the capillaries......Page 393
The distribution of pressure......Page 395
The propagation of cardiac pressure oscillations......Page 402
Pressure in the interstitial space......Page 403
The motion of single particles at very low flow rates......Page 405
The motion of single red blood cells in Poiseuille flow......Page 408
The flow of concentrated suspensions of particles and red cells......Page 411
The viscosity of whole blood......Page 413
The cell-free layer......Page 414
Plasma skimming......Page 416
Fårhaeus–Lindqvist effect......Page 417
Velocity profiles in vessels......Page 418
Blood flow in capillaries......Page 419
Positive clearance......Page 421
Negative clearance......Page 423
Mass transport in the microcirculation......Page 426
Filtration and reabsorption of water within single capillaries......Page 427
Capillary pressure and filtration of water in whole organ preparations......Page 432
Evidence for the existence of filtration pores in the capillary wal......Page 434
Diffusion across the capillary wall......Page 435
Methods of measuring permeability coefficients......Page 437
The diffusion pathway across the capillary wall......Page 444
The Pappenheimer equivalent pore theory......Page 445
The pathway for water transport across the capillary wall......Page 446
The transport of large molecules......Page 447
Further reading......Page 451
14
 The systemic veins......Page 453
Anatomy......Page 454
Transmural pressure and static elastic properties......Page 456
The resistance to bending of a tube wall......Page 465
Dynamics of blood flow in large veins......Page 467
Observed pressure and flow-rate waveforms......Page 468
Wave propagation in veins......Page 470
Flow in collapsible tubes......Page 478
Model experiments......Page 479
Mechanisms......Page 483
Physiological evidence: Korotkoff sounds......Page 486
Mechanics of venous beds......Page 487
Contraction of skeletal muscle......Page 488
Respiratory manoeuvres......Page 491
15 
The pulmonary circulation......Page 494
Pulmonary circulation......Page 495
Transmural pressure and static elastic properties of vessels......Page 502
Perivascular pressure......Page 503
Elastic properties......Page 507
Pulmonary blood volume......Page 509
Waveforms......Page 516
Wave propagation......Page 518
Flow in the alveolar sheet......Page 521
Zonal distribution of blood flow......Page 526
Effect of lung mechanics......Page 528
Further reading......Page 531
Index......Page 534
Table I.......Page 551