The Liver: Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants

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Obesity
Related Titles
Obesity: Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants
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Contents
List of Contributors
About the Editors
Preface
1 - Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. OXIDATIVE STRESS, OBESITY, AND METABOLIC SYNDROME
		2.1 Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress
			2.1.1 Lipid Oxidation Products
				2.1.1.1 Malondialdehyde, Alkenals, and Alkadienes Enclose Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances
				2.1.1.2 4-Hydroxynonenal
				2.1.1.3 F2-Isoprostanes
			2.1.2 Protein Oxidation
				2.1.2.1 Protein Carbonyls
				2.1.2.2 Advanced Oxidation Protein Products
				2.1.2.3 Advanced Lipoxigenation and Glycation End Products
				2.1.2.4 Nitrotyrosine
				2.1.2.5 Oxidized Low-Density Lipoproteins
			2.1.3 DNA Oxidation
		2.2 Antioxidant Defense System
			2.2.1 Glutathione Peroxidases
			2.2.2 Catalase
			2.2.3 Paraoxonases
			2.2.4 Peroxiredoxins
			2.2.5 Superoxide Dismutases
	3. INFLAMMATION, OBESITY, AND METABOLIC SYNDROME
		3.1 Biomarkers of Inflammation
			3.1.1 Tumor Necrosis Factor-α
			3.1.2 Interleukin-1β
			3.1.3 Interleukin-6
			3.1.4 Adipsin, C3, and Acylation Stimulating Protein
			3.1.5 Leptin
			3.1.6 P-Selectin
			3.1.7 Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-1
			3.1.8 Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1
			3.1.9 Resistin
			3.1.10 Visfatin
		3.2 Adipose Tissue and Antiinflammatory Proteins
			3.2.1 Adiponectin
			3.2.2 C1qTNF-Related Proteins
			3.2.3 Omentin
	4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
	REFERENCES
2 - Genetics of Oxidative Stress and Obesity-Related Diseases
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. GENE EXPRESSION OF ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES
	3. REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES RESPONSE MECHANISMS
		3.1 Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma
		3.2 PPARγ Coactivator 1 Alpha
		3.3 Nuclear Factor (Erythroid-Derived 2)-Like 2
		3.4 Forkhead Box O
	4. GENETIC VARIANTS
		4.1 Antioxidant Defense System Genes
			4.1.1 Glutathione Peroxidases
			4.1.2 Catalase
			4.1.3 Paraoxonases
			4.1.4 Peroxiredoxins
			4.1.5 Superoxide Dismutases
			4.1.6 Methionine Sulphoxide Reductase A
			4.1.7 Uncoupling Proteins
		4.2 Prooxidant Enzyme Genes
			4.2.1 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Complex
			4.2.2 Myeloperoxidase
		4.3 Genetic Variants in Transcription Factors
			4.3.1 Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma
			4.3.2 PPARγ Coactivator 1 Alpha
			4.3.3 Nuclear Factor (Erythroid-Derived 2)-Like 2
			4.3.4 Forkhead Box O
	5. MICRORNAS
		5.1 MicroRNAs in Adipose Tissue
		5.2 MicroRNAs in Atherosclerosis
		5.3 MicroRNAs in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
	6. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN OBESITY-RELATED DISEASES
		6.1 DNA Methylation and Oxidative Stress
		6.2 DNA Methylation, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolic Syndrome
		6.3 Histone Acetylation, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolic Syndrome
	7. OXIDATIVE STRESS, METABOLIC DISEASES, AND CANCER
	8. CONCLUSION
	GLOSSARY
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
3 - Molecular Basis of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. MOLECULAR BASIS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS
		2.1 Free Radicals and Reactive Oxygen Species
		2.2 Generation and Reactivity of Reactive Oxygen Species
		2.3 Generation and Reactivity of Nitrogen-Derived Reactive Species
		2.4 Molecular Cytotoxicity of Reactive Oxygen Species
		2.5 Reactive Oxygen Species Functions in Cell Signaling
		2.6 Beneficial Effects of Reactive Oxygen Species
		2.7 Antioxidant Cellular Defenses
			2.7.1 Enzymatic Antioxidant Defenses
			2.7.2 Nonenzymatic Antioxidant Defenses
			2.7.3 Molecular Mechanism of Action of Antioxidants
	3. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INFLAMMATION
		3.1 The Innate Immune System
			3.1.1 Soluble Factors of the Innate Immune System
			3.1.2 Macrophages
			3.1.3 Dendritic Cells
			3.1.4 Innate Lymphoid Cells
			3.1.5 Natural Killer Cells
			3.1.6 The Inflammasome
		3.2 Adaptive Immune System
			3.2.1 B Lymphocytes
			3.2.2 T Lymphocytes
		3.3 Microbiota and the Immune System
	GLOSSARY
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
4 - Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Adipose Tissue: Nutritional Regulation
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. WHITE, BROWN, AND BEIGE ADIPOSE TISSUE: PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES
		2.1 White Adipose Tissue
		2.2 Brown Adipose Tissue
		2.3 Beige Adipose Tissue
	3. INFLAMMATION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN ADIPOSE TISSUE IN OBESITY
	4. NUTRITIONAL REGULATION OF INFLAMMATION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN OBESITY
		4.1 n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
			4.1.1 n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Oxidative Stress
			4.1.2 n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Inflammation
			4.1.3 n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid-Derived Specialized Proresolving Lipid Mediators
		4.2 α-Lipoic Acid: Antioxidant Properties and Beyond
			4.2.1 α-Lipoic Acid and Obesity: Evidence From Animal Studies and Human Trials
			4.2.2 α-Lipoic Acid Actions in Adipose Tissue: Mechanisms of Action
				4.2.2.1 α-Lipoic Acid, Inflammation, and Oxidative Stress
				4.2.2.2 α-Lipoic Acid Actions on Adipocyte Metabolic Pathways
				4.2.2.3 α-Lipoic Acid Regulates the Adipocyte\'s Secretory Pattern
	5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
	REFERENCES
5 - Vascular Damage in Metabolic Disorders: Role of Oxidative Stress
	1. METABOLIC SYNDROME
		1.1 Definition and Classification
		1.2 Epidemiology and Clinical Repercussion
	2. OXIDATIVE STRESS
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Cellular Consequences of Pathological Reactive Oxygen Species Production
			2.2.1 Nitric Oxide Bioavailability
			2.2.2 Peroxynitrites Production
		2.3 Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease
		2.4 Enzymatic Sources of Superoxide Anion
	3. NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHATE OXIDASES
		3.1 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidases Localization
		3.2 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidase Regulation
	4. PHAGOCYTIC NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHATE OXIDASE AND METABOLIC DISORDERS
		4.1 Arterial Hypertension
		4.2 Metabolic Syndrome
		4.3 Atherosclerosis
	5. REGULATION OF PHAGOCYTIC NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHATE OXIDASE IN METABOLIC DISORDERS
		5.1 Humoral Agonists
			5.1.1 Angiotensin II and Endothelin-1
			5.1.2 Cytokines
		5.2 Metabolic Agonists
			5.2.1 Leptin
			5.2.2 Insulin
		5.3 Genetics Profile
			5.3.1 Polymorphism -930A﹥G
			5.3.2 Polymorphism -675T﹥A
			5.3.3 Polymorphism 242C﹥T
			5.3.4 Polymorphism 640A﹥G
	6. CONCLUSIONS
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
6 - Obesity and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Role of Oxidative Stress
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. DEFINITION
	3. PREVALENCE AND TRENDS
		3.1 Ethnicity, Gender, and Age
	4. RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH NONALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE
		4.1 Obesity
			4.1.1 Adipose Tissue in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
		4.2 Insulin Resistance
		4.3 Dyslipidemias
		4.4 Metabolic Syndrome
	5. PATHOGENESIS: THE HITS HYPOTHESIS
		5.1 First Hit: Lipid Accumulation in Hepatocytes
			5.1.1 Fatty Acid Uptake
			5.1.2 De Novo Fatty Acid Synthesis
			5.1.3 Fatty Acid Oxidation
			5.1.4 Fatty Acid Export
		5.2 Second Hit: Oxidative Stress
			5.2.1 Oxidative Stress in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
				5.2.1.1 Mitochondrial Dysfunction
				5.2.1.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress
	6. DIAGNOSIS
		6.1 Liver Biopsy
		6.2 Noninvasive Techniques
			6.2.1 General Biochemistry
			6.2.2 Markers of Liver Damage
			6.2.3 Imaging Tests
			6.2.4 Models to Assess Steatosis
				6.2.4.1 Fatty Liver Index
				6.2.4.2 Lipid Accumulation Product
				6.2.4.3 Hepatic Steatosis Index
				6.2.4.4 Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Liver Fat Score
			6.2.5 Model to Assess Hepatic Fibrosis
				6.2.5.1 BAAT Score
				6.2.5.2 BARD Score
	7. DIETARY TREATMENT
	8. CONCLUSIONS
	GLOSSARY
	LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
7 - Kidney Damage in Obese Subjects: Oxidative Stress and Inflammation
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE OF THE KIDNEY: FROM NORMAL FUNCTION TO CHANGES DURING DISEASE
	3. THE ADIPOSE TISSUE EXPANDABILITY HYPOTHESIS AND RENAL LIPOTOXICITY
	4. MECHANISMS OF ACTION UNDERLYING THE PATHOLOGICAL RENAL EFFECTS OF OBESITY
		4.1 The Role of Adipokines and Proinflammatory Factors From Adipose Tissue in Renal Injury
		4.2 Lipid Accumulation Promotes Changes in Renal Lipid Metabolism
		4.3 Inflammation and Oxidative Stress Relationship in Kidney Disease
		4.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Is Also Associated With Renal Lipotoxicity
		4.5 Oxidative Stress and Autophagy in the Context of Renal Lipotoxicity
		4.6 Oxidative Stress and Renal Fibrosis
		4.7 Overactivation of Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System in Obesity
	5. OBESITY AS INDEPENDENT RISK FACTOR FOR RENAL DISEASE: OBESITY-RELATED GLOMERULOPATHY
	6. OBESITY COMPLICATIONS IN KIDNEY DISEASE
		6.1 Insulin Resistance in the Development of Renal Disease
		6.2 Diabesity and Diabetic Nephropathy
		6.3 Cardiovascular Risk in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients
		6.4 Obesity and Renal Cancer
	7. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND INFLAMMATION AS BIOMARKERS FOR RENAL DISEASE DURING OBESITY
		7.1 Lipid Peroxidation
		7.2 Protein Oxidation
		7.3 Nucleic Acid Oxidation
		7.4 Antioxidants
		7.5 Hydrogen Sulfide
		7.6 Glutathionyl Hemoglobin
		7.7 Asymmetric Dimethyl Arginine
		7.8 Kynurenine Pathway
		7.9 Inflammation Markers
	8. THERAPIES IN OBESITY-RELATED KIDNEY DISEASE
		8.1 Weight Loss: Dietary Food Restriction and Bariatric Surgery
		8.2 Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Agonists as Therapy
		8.3 Antioxidant Therapies
			8.3.1 Natural Antioxidants
			8.3.2 Vitamin C and Vitamin E
			8.3.3 Omega-3 Fatty Acid
			8.3.4 N-Acetylcysteine
			8.3.5 Carnitine
			8.3.6 Coenzyme Q10
			8.3.7 Folic Acid
			8.3.8 Statins
			8.3.9 Trace Elements: Selenium and Zinc
			8.3.10 Synthetic Antioxidants
		8.4 Antiinflammatory Therapy
		8.5 Dialysis
	9. CONCLUSION
	GLOSSARY
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
8 - Inflammatory and Oxidative Stress Markers in Skeletal Muscle of Obese Subjects
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. INFLAMMATORY MARKERS IN SKELETAL MUSCLE IN OBESITY
		2.1 Tumor Necrosis Factor-α
		2.2 Interleukin-6
		2.3 Interleukin-15
		2.4 Interleukin-8
		2.5 Interleukin-10
		2.6 Fibroblast Growth Factor 21
		2.7 Irisin
		2.8 Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-1
		2.9 Myostatin
		2.10 Calprotectin
		2.11 Leukemia Inhibitory Factor
		2.12 Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor
		2.13 C1QTNF5/Myonectin
		2.14 Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor
		2.15 Osteocrin/Musclin
		2.16 Ceramides
		2.17 Infiltrated Immune Cells
			2.17.1 Macrophages
			2.17.2 T Cells
	3. ROLE OF INFLAMMATION-RELATED FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY-ASSOCIATED SKELETAL MUSCLE INSULIN RESISTANCE
	4. OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS IN SKELETAL MUSCLE IN OBESITY
		4.1 Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances
		4.2 8-Isoprostane
		4.3 Glutathione and Glutathione Peroxidase Activity
		4.4 Superoxide Dismutase
		4.5 4-Hydroxynonenal
		4.6 Protein Carbonylation
		4.7 Superoxide Anion
		4.8 Catalase
		4.9 Peroxiredoxins
		4.10 Thioredoxins
	5. ROLE OF OXIDATIVE STRESS FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY-ASSOCIATED SKELETAL MUSCLE INSULIN RESISTANCE
	6. EFFECT OF AGING ON INFLAMMATION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SKELETAL MUSCLE
	7. EFFECT OF PROINFLAMMATORY AND OXIDATIVE STRESS FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SARCOPENIC OBESITY
	8. THERAPEUTIC EFFECT OF DIET ON INFLAMMATION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SKELETAL MUSCLE IN OBESITY
		8.1 Reduce Saturated Fats and Transfats From Diet
		8.2 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
		8.3 Increase the Amount of Fruits and Vegetables in Diet
		8.4 Increase Foods Rich in Antioxidants
	9. ROLE OF EXERCISE IN THE REGULATION OF INFLAMMATION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SKELETAL MUSCLE IN OBESITY
	10. CONCLUSIONS
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
	REFERENCES
9 - Evaluation of Oxidative Stress in Humans: A Critical Point of View
	1. BLOOD CELLS GIVE INFORMATION ON ANTIOXIDANT ENDOGENOUS STATUS
	2. BLOOD CELLS GIVE INFORMATION ON EICOSANOID LEVELS
	3. BLOOD CELLS ARE USEFUL TO DEFINE ANTIOXIDANT EXOGENOUS (VITAMIN) STATUS
	4. CONCLUSIONS
	REFERENCES
10 - Benefits of Selenium, Magnesium, and Zinc in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. SELENIUM
		2.1 Requirements and Absorption
		2.2 Selenoproteins
		2.3 Role of Selenium in Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity
	3. MAGNESIUM
		3.1 Requirements and Absorption
		3.2 Role of Magnesium in Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity
		3.3 Magnesium and Inflammation
		3.4 Magnesium Consumption: Clinical and Prospective Trials
		3.5 Magnesium Supplementation
	4. ZINC
		4.1 Requirements and Absorption
		4.2 Role of Zinc in Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity
		4.3 The Role of Zinc as an Antioxidant
	5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
	LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
11 - Polyphenols in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome
	1. OBESITY AND METABOLIC SYNDROME
	2. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANT DEFENSE
		2.1 Oxidative Stress and Metabolic Syndrome
	3. EXOGENOUS ANTIOXIDANTS
	4. POLYPHENOLS
	5. CLASSIFICATION OF POLYPHENOLS
		5.1 Nonflavonoids
			5.1.1 Phenolic Acids
			5.1.2 Stilbenes
			5.1.3 Lignans
			5.1.4 Curcuminoids
		5.2 Flavonoids
			5.2.1 Flavonols
			5.2.2 Flavones
			5.2.3 Flavanones
			5.2.4 Chalcones
			5.2.5 Anthocyanins
			5.2.6 Flavanols/Flavan-3-ols or Catechins
			5.2.7 Proanthocyanidins
			5.2.8 Isoflavones
	6. CONCLUSION
	GLOSSARY
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
12 - Aging, Telomere Integrity, and Antioxidant Food
	1. AGING AND CELLULAR SENESCENCE
	2. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND AGING
	3. TELOMERES AS MARKERS OF BIOLOGICAL AGE
	4. TELOMERE INTEGRITY IN HUMAN STUDIES
	5. PRECISION NUTRITION FOR TELOMERE INTEGRITY
		5.1 Nutrients
		5.2 Fat Intake
		5.3 Foods and Beverages
		5.4 Dietary Patterns
	6. CONCLUSIONS
	LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
	REFERENCES
13 - Antioxidant Supplements in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome: Angels or Demons
	1. INTRODUCTION
	2. OXYGEN, REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES, AND OXIDATIVE STRESS
	3. OBESITY AND DIABETES ``PANDEMIC\'\'
	4. REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES PRODUCTION, MITOCHONDRIA, AND ADAPTATION
	5. INSULIN RESISTANCE, DIABETES, AND REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES
	6. CANCER AND ANTIOXIDANTS
	7. MEDITERRANEAN DIET AND OBESITY
	8. CONCLUSIONS
	LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
	REFERENCES
Index
	A
	B
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	D
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	M
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	Q
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	U
	V
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	X
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