The Language of Metaphors: Literal Metaphorical

BOOK COVER......Page 1
HALF-TITLE......Page 2
TITLE......Page 3
COPYRIGHT......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 5
ILLUSTRATIONS......Page 10
TABLES......Page 11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 12
TYPOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS......Page 14
ABBREVIATIONS......Page 16
WHY IS METAPHOR IMPORTANT?......Page 18
WHO IS THIS BOOK FOR?......Page 20
BUT WHY ANOTHER BOOK ON METAPHOR?......Page 21
AN OUTLINE OF THE BOOK......Page 22
TERMS AND A DEFINITION......Page 25
AN EXTENDED EXAMPLE: QUESTIONS ABOUT METAPHOR......Page 26
1.1.  INTRODUCTION......Page 30
1.2.  MATCHING AND SIMILARITY......Page 32
1.3.  METAPHOR, APPROXIMATION AND PROTOTYPICALITY......Page 33
1.4.  THE FUZZINESS AND VAGUENESS OF SEMANTIC CONCEPTS......Page 36
1.5.  SUMMARY......Page 38
1.6.  TEXT MEANINGS AND NEGOTIATION......Page 39
1.7.  ACQUISITION OF WORD-MEANINGS......Page 42
1.7.1.  Ostensive reference......Page 43
1.7.2.  Accommodation and assimilation......Page 44
1.8.  MEANING CHANGE IN THE LEXIS OF A LANGUAGE......Page 45
1.8.1.  Categories of inactive metaphors......Page 47
1.8.2.  Degrees of conventionality: semantics or pragmatics......Page 50
1.9.  CLINES OF METAPHORICITY......Page 53
1.9.1.  From explicit comparison to open-ended metaphor......Page 54
2.1.  INTRODUCTION......Page 56
2.2.1.1.  Create, Destroy, Transform......Page 61
2.2.1.2.  Transfer, Handle, Possess, Impact......Page 62
2.2.1.3.  Place/Space, Proximity......Page 64
2.2.1.5.  Perception/Seeing......Page 65
2.2.2.  Specific Reifying (Figure 2.1, row B)......Page 66
2.2.3.2.  Relationships, Control......Page 67
2.2.4.  Materializing Abstract Process (Figure 2.1, row D)......Page 68
2.2.5.  Process=Process (Figure 2.1, row E)......Page 70
2.2.7.  Categories of Root Analogy and preconceptual experience......Page 71
2.3.1.  Metonymy and metaphor......Page 72
2.3.2.  Interplay: multiple determination......Page 74
2.3.3.  Interplay: extensions......Page 75
2.3.4.  Interplay: oppositions......Page 77
2.3.5.  Interplay: reversal......Page 80
2.3.6.  Metaphorical lexis and diverse structuring of concepts......Page 81
2.3.7.  Influence of phonology/submorphemery as part of langue......Page 91
2.4.  SUMMARY AND AFTERTHOUGHT......Page 93
3.1.  WORD-CLASS AND METAPHOR......Page 95
3.1.1.  Nouns......Page 96
3.1.2.  Nouns referring to processes......Page 98
3.1.3.  Verbs......Page 99
3.1.3.2.  Representing the Mental as Material......Page 100
3.1.3.4.  Representing the Verbal as Material......Page 101
3.1.3.5.  Specificity of the conventional colligate......Page 102
3.1.5.  Adverbs and prepositions......Page 103
3.1.6.  Summary......Page 105
3.2.1.  Derivation and resemblance: resemblance incorporated in derivation......Page 106
3.2.2.  Derivation and resemblance: resemblance associated with derivation......Page 107
3.2.3.  Conclusion on derivation and metaphor......Page 108
3.2.4.1.  Conversion: nouns and verbs......Page 110
3.2.4.2.  Suffixation......Page 113
3.2.4.3.  Phrasal verbs......Page 116
3.2.4.4.  Prefixes......Page 118
3.2.5.  Word-formation and the delicate grammar of metaphorical lexis......Page 119
3.2.6.  Summary......Page 120
4.1.1.  Conventionality as a cline......Page 121
4.2.  AN IMPROVED DEFINITION......Page 122
4.2.1.  Unit of discourse and the scope of the metaphor......Page 123
4.2.3.  The referent of the unit of discourse: Topic and Vehicle......Page 124
4.2.4.  Colligational and Referential interpretations......Page 125
4.2.5.2.  Pathway 2......Page 126
4.2.5.5.  Pathway 5......Page 127
4.2.5.7.  Pathway 7......Page 129
4.3.1.  Substitution Theory......Page 130
4.3.2.  Interaction, Tension and Controversion Theories3......Page 131
4.3.3.  Comparison Theory......Page 132
4.4.1.  A definition of Similarity......Page 133
4.4.2.  Antecedent and attributional Similarity......Page 135
4.4.3.  Analogy......Page 137
4.4.4.  Colligations, analogies and schemas......Page 138
4.5.1.  Symbolism: superordinate substitution, and analogical metonymy......Page 141
4.5.2.  Asymmetric interpretation......Page 142
4.5.3.  Subjective interpretation......Page 145
4.5.4.  Illusion......Page 148
4.5.5.  Mimetic and Phenomenalistic interpretation......Page 149
4.6.  SUMMARY......Page 151
5.1.1.  What is Relevance? Contextual effects and processing effort......Page 152
5.1.2.  Relevance and implicature......Page 154
5.1.3.  Metaphor and Relevance......Page 156
5.1.4.  Irony: echoic utterances......Page 162
5.1.5.  A critical look at Sperber and Wilson......Page 163
5.2.1.  Filling lexical gaps......Page 165
5.2.2.  Explanation and modelling......Page 166
5.2.3.  Reconceptualization......Page 168
5.2.4.  Argument by analogy and/or false(?) reasoning......Page 169
5.2.5.  Ideology, the latent function......Page 172
5.2.6.  Expressing emotional attitude......Page 174
5.2.7.  Decoration, disguise and hyperbole......Page 175
5.2.8.  Cultivating intimacy......Page 177
5.2.9.  Humour and games......Page 178
5.2.10.  Metaphorical calls to action or problem-solving......Page 179
5.2.12.  Fiction......Page 180
5.2.13.  Enhancing Memorability, Foregrounding and Informativeness......Page 181
5.2.15.  Functions of metaphors and familiarity of the Vehicle......Page 183
6.1.  INTRODUCTION......Page 185
6.2.  WHICH METAPHORS DO WE NEED TO MARK?......Page 187
6.3.  DOMAIN SIGNALLERS OR TOPIC INDICATORS......Page 188
6.4.  CO-TEXTUAL MARKERS......Page 189
6.4.2.  Literally and other intensifiers......Page 190
6.4.3.  Hedges or Downtoners......Page 193
6.4.4.  Semantic metalanguage......Page 194
6.4.6.  Symbolism terms......Page 195
6.4.7.1.  Marking metaphorical Transfer......Page 196
6.4.7.2.  Lexical Gap-filling......Page 197
6.4.7.3.  Marking Subjective metaphors......Page 200
6.4.8.  Similes and comparisons......Page 201
6.4.8.1.  Similes as metaphorical frameworks......Page 202
6.4.8.2.  Precision similes and other comparisons......Page 203
6.4.9.1.  Similes and Mental processes of perception......Page 204
6.4.9.3.  Mental processes of cognition......Page 205
6.4.9.5.  So to speak/in a manner of speaking......Page 206
6.4.10.  Orthographic devices......Page 207
6.4.11.  Modals and conditionals......Page 209
6.4.11.1.  As it were......Page 211
6.5.  FACTIVITY AND THE EFFECTS OF MARKERS: AN AMBIGUITY IN PROPOSITIONAL ATTITUDE......Page 212
6.6.  SUBJECTIVE METAPHORS AND FANTASTIC LITERATURE......Page 214
6.7.  PROMISCUITY OF THE MARKERS......Page 215
7.1.  INTRODUCTION......Page 217
7.1.1.  Ferris’ Meaning of Syntax......Page 218
7.1.2.  Equation, Ascription, Interaction and Substitution......Page 219
7.1.3.  The applicability of the term Topic: specification and Indication......Page 220
7.2.  COPULA CONSTRUCTIONS......Page 221
7.2.1.  Equatives......Page 223
7.2.2.  Ascriptives......Page 224
7.2.3.  Abstractness of Topic and Vehicle and Ascription/Equation......Page 226
7.2.4.  Other statives/Relational processes......Page 228
7.3.  APPOSITION AND OTHER PARALLELISM......Page 229
7.3.1.  Appellation/Identification......Page 231
7.3.2.  Designation......Page 232
7.3.3.  Reformulation......Page 233
7.3.5.  Inclusion......Page 234
7.3.6.3.  Clauses and sentences......Page 235
7.3.8.  Conjunctions......Page 236
7.4.  GENITIVES......Page 237
7.4.1.  Appositive Genitives......Page 238
7.4.2.  (Partitive of) shape/measure......Page 239
7.4.4.  Analogic genitives......Page 240
7.4.6.  Genitives of Origin......Page 241
7.5.  PREMODIFICATION......Page 242
7.7.  BLENDS/PORTMANTEAUX......Page 245
7.9.  CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY ON TOPIC SPECIFICATION/INDICATION......Page 246
7.9.1.  The cline of Contradictoriness......Page 247
7.9.2.  Summary: lexical metaphor and ambiguity in syntactic meanings......Page 249
8.1.1.  The applicability of the concept of Grounds......Page 251
8.1.2.  The degrees of association of Grounds with Topic and Vehicle......Page 252
8.1.3.  Preposed and postposed Grounds......Page 253
8.2.1.1.  Column X......Page 254
8.2.1.3.  Column Z......Page 257
8.2.2.  Like-similes: adverbial and prepositional phrases......Page 258
8.2.3.  As-similes: prepositional phrases and conjunctions......Page 260
8.2.4.  Phenomenalistic and Subjective Grounds......Page 261
8.2.5.  Of-genitives......Page 262
8.3.1.  V-term premodifiers with G-term heads......Page 263
8.3.2.  Verbless clauses......Page 264
8.3.4.  Relative clauses......Page 265
8.3.5.  Specification by verb phrase (predicate)......Page 267
8.3.7.  Grounds of verb V-terms......Page 268
8.4.  PSEUDO-GROUNDS......Page 270
8.5.  GROUNDS AT GREATER DISTANCES......Page 271
8.6.  SUMMARY: THE POSITIONING OF G-TERMS......Page 274
8.7.  OVERVIEW OF THE CLINES OF METAPHORIC FORCE......Page 276
9.1.  INTRODUCTION: OVERVIEW OF THE FRAMEWORK......Page 279
9.2.  REPETITION......Page 280
9.3.  MULTIVALENCY......Page 282
9.4.  DIVERSIFICATION......Page 284
9.5.1  Lexical relations......Page 286
9.5.2  Lexical sets......Page 287
9.6.  EXTENSION......Page 288
9.6.1.  Allegory......Page 289
9.6.2.  Quasi-allegory......Page 291
9.7.  MIXING......Page 294
9.8.  COMPOUNDING OF METAPHORS......Page 296
9.9.1.  Means of Literalization......Page 297
9.9.2.1.  Revitalizing......Page 301
9.9.2.2.  Blurring the literal-metaphorical distinction......Page 302
9.9.2.3  Symbolism......Page 303
9.10.  OVERDESCRIPTION......Page 304
9.11.  SYMBOLISM AND THE COMPLICATIONS OF METAPHORIC INTERPLAY......Page 305
10.2.  DEVELOPMENT OF RELEVANCE THEORY: THE NEED FOR A SOCIAL DIMENSION......Page 308
10.3.  HALLIDAY’S SOCIAL DIMENSION: A THEORY OF CONTEXTS AND PURPOSES......Page 310
10.4.  RELEVANCE AND SOCIAL SEMIOTICS IN FAIRCLOUGH’S MODEL OF TEXT INTERPRETATION......Page 312
10.4.1.  A sample analysis of metaphor using the model......Page 314
10.5.  CONTEXT AND THE INTERPRETATION OF METAPHOR......Page 318
10.5.1.  The contribution of Field to metaphorical interpretation......Page 321
10.5.2.  The contribution of Field/Tenor purpose to metaphor interpretation......Page 324
10.5.2.1.  Conversation......Page 325
10.5.2.3.  Popular Science......Page 327
10.5.2.4.  Magazine Advertising......Page 328
10.5.2.5.  Modern Novels......Page 329
10.5.3.  Genre and adequate Relevance......Page 331
10.5.4.  Processing Effort and processing time......Page 335
10.6.  ASPECTS OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS IN DIFFERENT GENRES: A SURVEY AND SUMMARY......Page 337
10.8.1.  Conversation......Page 344
10.8.2.  National News Reports......Page 345
10.8.3.  Popular Science......Page 346
10.8.4.  Magazine Advertising......Page 348
10.8.5.  Modern Novels......Page 349
10.8.6.  Modern English Lyric Poetry......Page 351
10.9.  ENVOI......Page 353
NOTES......Page 354
REFERENCES......Page 361
TEXTS USED FOR EXAMPLES AND ANALYSIS (AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN REFERENCES)......Page 368
TEXTS USED FOR STATISTICS IN TABLE 10.2......Page 371
INDEX......Page 374