The Human Hypothalamus: Anatomy, Functions and Disorders

THE HUMAN HYPOTHALAMUS......Page 3
THE HUMAN HYPOTHALAMUS......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 9
PREFACE......Page 11
ABBREVIATIONS......Page 13
Historical Overview......Page 19
Gross Anatomy and Vascular Supply......Page 23
Paraventricular and Supraoptic Nuclei......Page 30
Intermediate Nucleus of Brockhaus......Page 31
Nuclei Associated with the Mammillary Body......Page 37
Fornix......Page 38
Medial Forebrain Bundle......Page 39
Stria Medullaris......Page 40
Periventricular Fiber System......Page 41
Mamillotegmental Tract......Page 42
References......Page 43
Introduction......Page 49
1. Anatomy of the Arcuate Nucleus......Page 50
2. The Arcuate Nucleus and the Blood-Brain Barrier......Page 53
3. Chemical Lesioning of the ARC as A Tool to Investigate the Function  of the ARC......Page 56
4. Responsiveness of the ARC to Circulating Nutrients......Page 62
5. Gomori-Positive Astrocytes of the ARC......Page 63
6. Responsiveness of the ARC to Circulating Hormones......Page 67
7. Plasticity of Anatomy and Function of the ARC......Page 72
8. Clinical Disorders and the ARC......Page 73
References......Page 75
Introduction......Page 85
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) System......Page 87
Substance P System......Page 88
Β–Endorphin- System......Page 89
Leu-Enkephalin System......Page 90
Galanin System......Page 91
CRH System......Page 93
GnRH System......Page 94
GHRH System......Page 95
Somatostatinergic System......Page 96
GALP System......Page 97
Kisspeptin System......Page 98
References......Page 99
Introduction......Page 105
Distribution and Morphology of Oxytocinergic and Vasopressinergic Elements in the Human Hypothalamus......Page 106
Oxytocinergic and Vasopressinergic Projections in the Human Hypothalamus......Page 109
Effects of steroids on OT and AVP Neuroanatomy......Page 110
Functions of Oxytocin in Humans......Page 111
Functions of AVP in Humans......Page 114
Stress and OT and AVP: Catecholaminergic Input to OT and AVP Neurons......Page 115
Relationship of Nonapeptides to Gonadal Steroids and Steroid-Binding Globulins......Page 119
Conclusion......Page 121
References......Page 122
The Catecholaminergic  System – Introductory Remarks......Page 135
Hypothalamic Adrenergic System......Page 137
DBH-IR Elements of the Diencephalon......Page 139
TH-IR Elements of the Diencephalon......Page 142
Associations between the Catecholaminergic Elements......Page 145
Summary and Conclusion......Page 146
References......Page 147
GnRH and the Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Axis......Page 151
The Morphology and Distribution of GnRH Neurons in Human......Page 152
Estrogen and Gonad Regulation......Page 155
Potential Neurotransmitter Systems Mediating the Effect of Estrogen on LH Release......Page 156
Neuropeptide Y (NPY)......Page 157
Substance P (SP)......Page 159
β-endorphin......Page 161
Leu-enkephalin......Page 163
Galanin......Page 166
GALP......Page 169
Kisspeptin......Page 170
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)......Page 172
Catecholamines......Page 173
References......Page 175
The Morphology of the Hypothalamic GHRH System......Page 191
The Hypothalamic Somatostatinergic System......Page 194
Stress and Growth......Page 195
NPY and GHRH......Page 197
Catecholaminergic Control of GHRH Release......Page 199
Other Neurotransmitter/Hormonal Systems Influencing Growth......Page 201
References......Page 203
1. Introduction......Page 209
2.1. Vagal Efferent Output......Page 210
2.2. Vagal Afferent Input and Solitary Nucleus as a Medullary Integrative Center......Page 215
2.3. The Sympatho-Vagal Imbalance as a Cause of Cardiovascular Deficiency......Page 217
3. Hypothalamic Control of Circulation and Cardiovascular Deficiency......Page 218
3.1. Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus and Impairment of Autonomic Cardiovascular Regulation......Page 219
3.2. The PVN as a Central Site of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Cardiovascular Deficiency......Page 221
3.3. PVN CRH But Not Brainstem CRH is Activated in Hypertensive Patients......Page 222
3.4. PVN-CRH Influence on SCN is Enhanced in Hypertensive Patients......Page 229
3.5. The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus as a Pacemaker of Circadian Rhythmicity and Cardiovascular Insufficiency......Page 232
3.5.1. Vasopressin (VP) Neurons......Page 233
3.5.2. Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP) Neurons......Page 235
3.5.4. Projections of the SCN......Page 236
3.6. Other Hypothalamic Changes in Hypertensive Patients......Page 237
Conclusion......Page 239
References......Page 240
Historical Overview......Page 265
POMC Neurons Controlling Food Intake and Body Weight......Page 270
POMC Neurons Regulate Whole Body Glucose Homeostasis......Page 275
Agrp Neurons Regulate Food Intake and Body Weight......Page 277
GABA Signaling in the ARC......Page 278
Hormonal Regulation of Agrp Neurons......Page 279
VMH......Page 281
Orexin......Page 283
MCH......Page 284
Hypothalamic Synaptic Plasticity Regulates Food Intake......Page 285
Post-Translational Modifications......Page 288
References......Page 290
Introduction......Page 301
Organization of the Human SCN......Page 302
Vasopressin in the SCN......Page 304
Vasopressin as an Output Signal of the SCN......Page 307
SCN Vasopressin in Human Health and Disease......Page 310
The SCN – Pineal Complex......Page 311
Conclusion......Page 315
References......Page 316
Introduction......Page 329
Cutaneous Thermoreception......Page 332
Lateral Parabrachial Nucleus......Page 333
Cutaneous Vasoconstriction Regulates Heat Loss......Page 334
Thermogenesis in Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT)......Page 335
Cardiac Thermogenesis......Page 336
Shivering Thermogenesis......Page 337
Temperature Sensation within the Preoptic Area (POA)......Page 338
Sensorimotor Integration of Thermoregulation in the POA......Page 339
Dorsomedial Hypothalamus (DMH) Contributes to the Hypothalamic Regulation of BAT Thermogenesis......Page 341
Hypothalamic Regulation of Shivering Thermogenesis......Page 342
Hypothalamic Regulation of Cutaneous Vasoconstriction......Page 343
The Paraventricular Hypothalamus (PVH) in Thermoregulation......Page 344
Monoamines in POA Influence Body Temperature......Page 345
Febrile Response to The Pyrogenic Mediator, Prostaglandin E2 (PGE) 22......Page 346
Conclusion......Page 347
References......Page 348
Introduction......Page 361
The Posterior Hypothalamus......Page 362
History of Histamine as a Neurotransmitter......Page 363
Anatomical Considerations......Page 364
Histamine in Wakefulness......Page 367
History of Orexin/Hypocretin as a Modulator of Sleep/Wake......Page 368
Preoptic Area......Page 372
The Ventrolateral Preoptic Area (VLPO)......Page 373
The Median Preoptic Area (MnPO)......Page 374
The Magnocellular Preoptic Area (MgPO)......Page 376
The Biological Clock: Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)......Page 377
Conclusion......Page 379
References......Page 380
1. The "Endocrine" and the "Neural" Hypothalamus - An Introduction......Page 389
2.1. The Stress Response......Page 390
Yin-Yang Properties......Page 392
Sex Differences......Page 393
2.2. How the PVN Translates Limbic Information into Endocrine Signals?......Page 394
2.2.2. The Lateral Septum......Page 396
2.2.4. The Amygdala......Page 397
Laboratory Studies......Page 398
Human Studies......Page 399
The Role of AVP......Page 400
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis......Page 401
Human Studies......Page 402
Neurohypophyseal Hormones (AVP, OT)......Page 403
2.3.3. Aggression and Anxiety......Page 404
3.1. Behavioral Responses Elicited by Hypothalamic Stimulation......Page 405
3.2.1. Aggression......Page 407
3.2.2. Fear and Anxiety......Page 408
The Hypothalamic Defense System......Page 409
Comparisons between Models......Page 410
Laboratory Studies......Page 411
Human Studies......Page 412
Laboratory Studies......Page 413
Human Studies......Page 414
Laboratory Studies......Page 416
Human Studies......Page 417
Laboratory Findings......Page 418
Overall Conclusion......Page 419
References......Page 420
Introduction......Page 437
Age-Related Changes in the Infundibular Nucleus......Page 439
Age Related Changes in the Suprachiasmatic Nuclei......Page 440
Age Related Changes in the Paraventricular and Supraoptic Nuclei......Page 441
Age Related Changes in Neurotransmitters in the Hypothalamus......Page 442
Conclusion......Page 443
References......Page 444
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS......Page 447
INDEX......Page 449