The Green City: Urban Nature as an Ideal, Provider of Services and Conceptual Urban Design Approach

Foreword
Contents
1: What is Urban Nature?
	1.1	 What Does “Green City” Mean?
	Organizations Want to Be “Green” – Green Campus 2020 Strategy of the University of Copenhagen
	Companies Offer “Green City” as a Support Concept in Energy, Mobility and Climate Protection Management on a Customer-Specific Basis – Green City Project Munich
	Green City e. V. – Citizens Organise Themselves in an Environmental Organisation to Make Their City “Greener”
	Cities Refer to Their Energy-Based Sustainability Concept as Green City – How Much Green is There in Freiburg’s Green City Concept?
	1.2	 What Does Urban Nature Mean?
	1.3	 Components of Urban Nature
	References
2: How Urban Nature Developed?
	2.1	 Urban Nature as a Cultural Product
	What the Metaphor “Green Lungs” Means – “Lungs” Cleaning the Air for Better Health in Cities
	The “Green Lungs” – How a Metaphor Came Into Being and is First Documented in 1808: It Is About the Right to Public Greenery – A Topical Issue
	2.2	 Urban Nature Is Establishing
	Boulevards and Promenades
	2.3	 Public Urban Nature for Beautification, Recreation, Public Health and Public Education
	The First Park in the New World Adorns Nueva España’s Capital Mexico
	The English Garden in Munich
	Hyde Park in London
	A Hyde Park for New York
	Committed Citizens Change the City – The Example: Beautification Association (Verschönerungsverein), Stuttgart
	The Parque Central in Latin American Cities – The Example: Plaza Mayor in Antigua Guatemala, a City Square Turns Green
	Racecourses and Golf Courses – Special Sports in Special Urban Green Spaces
	Company’s Garden Cape Town, South Africa – From Vegetable Garden to Recreational Park
	2.4	 The Park Cemetery – A Place of Recreation for the Living
	The City Graveyard in Halle/Saale, Germany – A Cemetery Became an Urban Nature Space
	Forest and Park Cemeteries
		Skogskyrkogården in Stockholm
		The Ohlsdorf Cemetery in Hamburg
	2.5	 The Urban Forests and Forest Parks – How the Forest Stayed in the City
	An Alluvial Forest Becomes a People’s Park – The Vienna Prater
	The Berlin Great Tiergarten – Hunting Ground, Vegetable Garden, Now Forest Park
	2.6	 The Private Garden for Everyone Complements the Public Urban Nature
	Paradise Gardens of the Garden Palaces – The Garden as an Ideal of “Paradisiacal ­Beautiful” Nature in the Urban Living Environment
	Allotment Garden Association “Dr. Schreber” – The First Schreber Association in Germany
	2.7	 How the Waters Became Urban?
	The Almkanal in Salzburg, Austria – The Most Important Urban Hydraulic Structure of the High Middle Ages
	Cholera Epidemics – Contaminated Drinking Water Kills Thousands of Urban Dwellers
	References
3: How Urban Nature Exists in the Context of Nature and Culture?
	3.1	 The Relationship Between City and Natural Environment
	Malaria: Deadly Disease from the Wetlands Surrounding the Cities of the Tropics and Subtropics
	3.2	 Example Forest City: Integration into the Natural Environment
	Campos do Jordão: A Forest City for Sao Paulo, Brazil
	3.3	 Example Desert City: Turning Away from the Natural Environment
	Trees in an Oasis City: Mendoza in the Argentinean Dry Region
	3.4	 Example Mountain City: Dealing with Extreme Natural Environment
	The White Ski Towns of the ALPS Are Not Green Towns
	Potosi: The Silver City Creates a New Mountain Landscape Since the Sixteenth Century
	3.5	 Forest and Wilderness in the City: Places for Religion and Rituals
	Urban Nature as an Object of Religious Worship: Shrine Forests in Japanese Cities
	Konglin: The Private Forest Cemetery of the Kong Family in Qufu, China
	Urban Wilderness for Men Only: Xhosa Urban Initiation Sites in Khayelitsha, Cape Town, South Africa
	3.6	 Gardens and Parks: Designed Nature for the Urban Recreational Landscape
	Chinese Gardens Are Different: They Take the Natural Landscape as Their Model, Miniaturising and Idealising It
	References
4: What Services Urban Nature Provides?
	4.1	 What Ecosystem Services Do We Expect From Urban Nature?
		The TEEB Approach Creates an Economic Perspective on Urban Nature (Naturkapital Deutschland – TEEB DE 2016, p. 14)
		Use of the Services Offered by Urban Green Spaces
		Urban Green Spaces in Focus – Studies Confirm They Are Important for Health and Well-Being
		Results of Interdisciplinary Research on Urban Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
		Urban Ecosystem Services – What Is Internationally Being Studied and Where?
	4.2	 Which Urban Natures Provide What Kind of Ecosystem Services?
		Box 4.1 Urban Structure Types (Land Use and Building Structure Types or “Ecological Spatial Units”), Examples (see e.g. Sukopp and Wittig 1993)
	4.3	 How Can Urban Ecosystem Services Be Valued?
	References
5: What Urban Nature Provides Which Services?
	5.1	 The Urban Park
		5.1.1	 Natural Element Urban Park
		Parks Make Salzburg, Austria, Beautiful – Mönchsberg Hill and Mirabell Gardens
		Park Categories in Great Britain
		5.1.2	 Services of Urban Parks
	Why Parks Are So Attractive for City Dwellers?
	Austrian Pupils Name the Benefits They Get from Urban Parks
	How Chinese Use and Value the Parks in Shanghai?
	The City Administration of San Diego (USA) Describes the Benefits of Its Urban Parks from the Perspective of Planning and Management
	5.2	 The Urban Tree Population (Urban Forest)
		5.2.1	 Nature Elements, Urban Trees and Urban Woodland
		5.2.2	 Services Provided by Urban Trees
	Street Trees – Survival Artists on Unfavourable Sites
	Which Nature Is Preferred? – Why Urban Woodlands Are So Important
	What Is the Nymphenburg Palace Park in Munich Worth to Us?
	New Urban Woodland in Leipzig
	The 2018–2037 Urban Forest Management Plan (UFMP) for Ottawa, Canada
	Urban Trees in the Public Eye – The Jackson Magnolia in Front of the White House in ­Washington
	Solving Ecological and Social Problems with Urban Forest? – The Example of the Halle-Silberhöhe Forest Town
	The Vertical Forest – Vertical Densification of Nature
	Creating the “Balance with Nature” (Boeri) in Urban Space with the (Horizontal and Vertical) Urban Forest – China Is Planning the World’s First Forest City
	The City Tree – A Literary Excursion with Bertolt Brecht
	5.3	 The Urban Gardens
		5.3.1	 Natural Element Urban Garden
		The Community Gardens Began as Guerrillas
		Urban Gardening Brings Home-Grown Natural Products into Cities as a New Experience in Dealing with Nature – The Example of Shanghai
		5.3.2	 Urban Gardens as Services Providers
	Eight Reasons for Allotment Gardening in England (RHS 2013)
	Barcelona – New Trend – Gardening in Different Garden Forms
	The White House Vegetable Garden in Washington
	5.4	 Urban Waters
		5.4.1	 Natural Element Urban Waters
		5.4.2	 Services of Urban Waters
		The WWT London Wetland Centre – A Wetland Oasis for Nature and People in the Middle of London
		5.4.3	 Restoration of Ecosystem Services of Urban Waters
	Renaturation of the Isar in Munich (2000–2011)
	The Imperial Summer Residence Chendge, China – A Designed Water Landscape for ­Imperial Edification
	The Paraná Delta – Attractive Wetland in Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina
	Río Matanza-Riachuelo in the Agglomeration of Buenos Aires, Argentina – The Dirtiest River in Latin America Is to Become Clean
	Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project – An Almost Eleven-Kilometre-Long Artificial Waterway Transforms the Megacity of Seoul, South Korea
	References
6: What Constitutes Urban Biodiversity?
	6.1	 Urban Biodiversity: A Paradigm Shift?
	Cities: Urban Hotspots of Biodiversity
	6.2	 How Can Urban Biodiversity Be Measured?
		6.2.1	 Integration Levels of Biological Diversity
		6.2.2	 Structure of Urban Habitats as Indicator and Basis of Spatial Assessment
		6.2.3	 Species Diversity as Indicator
		Measuring Urban Biodiversity with Citizen Science: Hour of Garden Birds 2018
	6.3	 How Is Urban Biodiversity Perceived?
	How Is Urban Biodiversity Perceived?: Results of Studies in Shanghai Parks
	6.4	 Urban Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
	References
7: What Constitutes Urban Nature in the Green City Concept?
	7.1	 The Green City, a Conceptual Mosaic of Action Objectives
	Towards the Green City: “Guidelines for the Implementation of Nature Conservation in Urban Planning”
	Charter “Future City and Green”
	Fields of Action of the White Paper “Urban Greening” of the Federal Ministry for the Environment (BMUB 2017)
	7.2	 Green Infrastructure: The Local Basic Concept
	7.3	 The Concept of Urban Biodiversity
	The Nagoya Declaration: Urban Biodiversity Turns Cities into “Green, Pleasant and Prosperous Places”
	City Biodiversity Index (CBI): Biodiversity Comparison for the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
		Native Biodiversity the Natural Ecosystems
	Native Biodiversity Versus Non-native Biodiversity: Biodiversity Only Through Native Species as a Goal for Cities?
	Biodiversity Region BioFrankfurt
	The “Berlin Biodiversity Strategy”: “Green Metropolis” Berlin Through Biodiversity
	Cities Engage in Competition for Urban Biodiversity: Internationalisation and Local Efforts for Nature for Urban Dwellers
	Singapore Protects Its Biodiversity with a National Biodiversity Strategy
	7.4	 Wild Goes Urban: Wilderness as Part of Urban Nature
	Project “Cities Dare Wilderness”: German Federal Programme on Biological Diversity – Pilot Projects to Develop Acceptance for Urban Wilderness
	The Tempelhofer Feld in Berlin: Acceptance and Expectations When Urban Nature Meets Wildlife Habitats
	Sensitive Urban Wilderness: Riccarton Bush Christchurch, New Zealand
	Manicured Urban Nature Versus Wilderness: The Example of Linz, Austria
	Unspectacular Wilderness Becomes Spectacular: Schöneberger Südgelände Nature Park, Berlin
	New Wilderness as a New Opportunity for More Contact with Nature: Ecological Parks in London
	7.5	 The Green City Concept in European and Global Perspective
	Dresden: On the Way to Becoming a Green City with the Guiding Idea “Compact City in an Ecological Network”
	Rebuilding Cities in ‘Balance with Nature’
	2050 Nagoya Strategy for Biodiversity: A City Sets Measurable Goals on the Way to a Green City
	References
8: What Ways Are There to a Green City?
	8.1	 The First Steps
		Experts Develop an International Research Agenda for the Green City
	8.2	 Maintain, Gain and Connect Space for Urban Nature
		The Aim Should Be
		The 30 ha Target in Germany
		Arvi Park, Medellín, Colombia
		“Double Internal Development” in Germany
	8.3	 Making Urban Nature Accessible to All
		The Aim Should Be
		Nordelta, Buenos Aires – A Green Island of the Wealthy
	8.4	 Enhancing the Benefits of All Types of Urban Nature
		The Aim Should Be
	8.5	 Making Urban Nature a Space for Experiencing Nature and a Learning Place
		The Aim Should Be
		Nature Experience and Nature Learning in Linz, Austria
	8.6	 Protecting and Using Urban Nature
		The Aim Should Be
		30 Recommendations for the Development and Management of Urban Protected Areas (After Trzyna 2014b)
		Principles of Urban Nature Conservation
		Aravalli Biodiversity Park, Delhi, India
		Văcărești Nature Park – A Wilderness as a Protected Area in the Middle of Bucharest, Romania
		Tokai Forest, Cape Town, South Africa – Moderating the Conflict Between Restoration and Recreational Use
		Parque Nacional da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – Hotspot of Global Biodiversity and Urban National Park
	8.7	 Using Urban Nature for Climate Moderation
		The Aim Should Be
	8.8	 Solving Problems and Reducing Risks with Urban Nature – Nature-based Solutions (NbS)
		The Aim Should Be
		Principles of Nature-based Solutions
		Restoration of Natural Ecosystems of Urban Wetlands and Waters
	8.9	 Providing Guidance Through Good Examples
		The Aim Should Be
		City of the Future without a Green Concept? – Neom, Saudi Arabia
		Compact Smart City New Songdo, Incheon, South Korea
		Ecological Wetland Belt Chengdu – Six Lakes and Eight Wetlands
		Bang Krachao – The Green Island in the Bangkok Metropolis
	References
Index